Dynamics, threats and management of biogenic reefs

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UNDER CONSTRUCTION

PROCESSES AND MECHANISMS DRIVING NATURAL DYNAMICS & ECOSYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

In this section, the processes and mechanisms driving natural dynamics and ecosystem development of biogenic reefs are discussed for each group in turn: Sabellaria spinulosa, Sabellaria alveolata, Mytilus spp. and Modiolus modiolus.

Sabellaria spinulosa

Environmental Requirements

S.spinulosa is thought to require stable foundations on which to settle and establish a tube (Jackson, 1977[1]; Wood, 1999[2]; Chisholm and Kelley, 2001[3]) and is thus likely to favour substrata which include bedrock; boulders, cobbles, mixed substrata; and mixed sediment (Connor et al., 1997[4]). Although it is assumed that a firm substratum is required for colony establishment, it has been suggested that a reef can increase in extent without the need for hard substratum (Holt et al., 1997[5]). Many studies have reported extensive colonies in predominantly sandy areas (Warren and Sheldon, 1967[6]; Schäfer, 1972[7]; Warren, 1973[8]; Limpenny et al., 2010[9]). Recent observations from The Wash, England show that S. spinulosa had ‘seeded’ on shell fragments predominantly from blue or horse mussels (Ian Reach, Natural England, pers. comm.).

As S. spinulosa is a sedentary species, it relies on wave and current action to supply food and wash away waste products (Kirtley, 1992[10]). Strong water movement is required for food provisions, but is perhaps more important to raise sediment into suspension for tube building (Jones, 1999[11]). As a result, S. spinulosa colonies are typically located in areas of weak to moderately strong water flow (Jones et al., 2000[12]). It also appears to favour locations around the edges of sand banks or areas with sand waves (Foster‐Smith, 2001a[13]). S. spinulosa typically occurs subtidally in depths of a few meters to up to 40 m depth (Caspers, 1950[14]; George and Warwick, 1985; Connor et al., 1997[4]; Jessop and Stoutt, 2006[15]), but can occur in depths up to 600 m (Hartmann-Schröder, 1971). S. spinulosa occasionally occurs in the lower intertidal zone (Jessop and Stoutt, 2006[15]).

Reproduction and Development

Sabellaria alveolata

Environmental Requirements

Reproduction and Development

Mytilus spp.

Environmental Requirements

Reproduction and Development

Modiolus modiolus

Environmental Requirements

Reproduction and Development

VULNERABILITY & THREATS

GENERAL SUMMARY

Sabellaria spinulosa

Sabellaria alveolata

Modiolus modiolus

Mytilus spp.

NATURAL AND ANTHROPOGENIC THREAT

Sabellaria spinulosa

Physical threats
Chemical threats
Biological threats

Sabellaria alveolata

Physical threats
Chemical threats
Biological threats

Mytilus spp.

Physical threats
Chemical threats
Biological threats

Modiolus modiolus

Physical threats
Chemical threats
Biological threats

KEY PROCESSES TO FOCUS ON FOR MAINTAINING ECOSYSTEMS INTEGRITY

CURRENT MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Sabellaria spinulosa

Sabellaria alveolata

Mytilus spp.

Modiolus modiolus

SEE ALSO

Theseus Official Deliverable 3.3-Natural habitats for coastal protection and relevant multi-stressor coastal risks. Report and European Scale overview.

REFERENCES

  1. ↑ JACKSON J., 1977. Competition on marine hard substrata: the adaptive significance of solitary and colonial strategies. The American Naturalist, 111: 743-767.
  2. ↑ WOOD R., 1999. Reef Evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford. pp. 414. Availbale from: [1]
  3. ↑ CHISHOLM J.R.M., & KELLEY R., 2001. Worms start the reef-building process. Nature, 409: 152 153.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 CONNOR D., DALKIN M., HILL T., HOLT R. & SANDERSON W., 1997. Marine Nature Conservation Review: marine biotope classification for Britain and Ireland. Volume 2. Sublittoral biotopes. Version 97.06. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough. pp 448. Available from: [2]
  5. ↑ HOLT T., HARTNOLL R. & HAWKINS S., 1997. Sensitivity and vulnerability to man‐induced change of selected communities: intertidal brown algal shrubs, Zostera beds and Sabellaria spinulosa reefs. English Nature Research Reports. No. 234. pp97.
  6. ↑ WARREN P.J., SHELDON R.W., 1967. Feeding and migration patterns of the Pink Shrimp Pandalus montagui, in the estuary of the River Crouch, England, Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 24, 569-580.
  7. ↑ SCHAFER W., 1972. Ecology and Palaeoecology of Marine Environments. Translation of Aktuo-paläontologie nach Studien in der Nordsee. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. pp 568. Availbale from: [3]
  8. ↑ WARREN P., 1973. The fishery for the pink shrimp Pandalus montagui of the Wash. Laboratory Leaflet (New Series) No. 28. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Lowestoft. pp. 46.
  9. ↑ LIMPENNY D.S., FOSTER‐SMITH R.L., EDWARDS T.M., HENDRICK V.J., DIESING M., EGGLETON J.D., MEADOWS W.J., CRUTCHFIELD Z., PFEIFER S., & REACH I.S., 2010.Best methods for identifying and evaluating Sabellaria spinulosa and cobble reef. Aggregate Levy Sustainability Fund Project MAL0008. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough. pp 134.
  10. ↑ KIRTLEY D.J., 1992. Built to last. Worm reefs. A feat of natural engineering. Florida Oceanographic Magazine. 13, 12‐19.
  11. ↑ JONES L., 1999. Habitat Action Plan: Sabellaria spinulosa reefs. English Nature. pp 4.
  12. ↑ JONES L.A., HISCOCK K., CONNOR D.W., 2000. Marine habitat reviews. A summary of ecological requirements and sensitivity characteristics for the conservation and management of marine SACs. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough. (UK Marine SACs Project report).
  13. ↑ FOSTER‐SMITH R.L., 2001a. Report of the field survey for the 2001 Sabellaria spinulosa project. A report for the Eastern Sea Fisheries Joint Committee and English Nature. pp 45.
  14. ↑ CASPERS H., 1950. Die Lebensgemeinschaft der Helgolander Austernbank. Helgoland Marine Research. 3, 119-169. Available from: [4]7.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 JESSOP R. & STOUTT J., 2006. Broad scale Sabellaria spinulosa distribution in the central Wash (Southern North Sea), as predicted with the acoustic ground discriminating system (A.G.D.S) RoxannTM. Draft report by the Eastern Sea Fisheries Joint Committee for English Nature. pp 26.



The main authors of this article are Firth, Louise, Davies, Andrew, Hawkins, Stephan, Airoldi, Laura and Colangelo, Marina Antonia
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