Dynamics, threats and management of biogenic reefs

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UNDER CONSTRUCTION

PROCESSES AND MECHANISMS DRIVING NATURAL DYNAMICS & ECOSYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

In this section, the processes and mechanisms driving natural dynamics and ecosystem development of biogenic reefs are discussed for each group in turn: Sabellaria spinulosa, Sabellaria alveolata, Mytilus spp. and Modiolus modiolus.

Sabellaria spinulosa

Environmental Requirements

S.spinulosa is thought to require stable foundations on which to settle and establish a tube (Jackson, 1977[1]; Wood, 1999[2]; Chisholm and Kelley, 2001[3]) and is thus likely to favour substrata which include bedrock; boulders, cobbles, mixed substrata; and mixed sediment (Connor et al., 1997[4]). Although it is assumed that a firm substratum is required for colony establishment, it has been suggested that a reef can increase in extent without the need for hard substratum (Holt et al., 1997[5]). Many studies have reported extensive colonies in predominantly sandy areas (Warren and Sheldon, 1967[6]; Schäfer, 1972[7]; Warren, 1973[8]; Limpenny et al., 2010[9]). Recent observations from The Wash, England show that S. spinulosa had ‘seeded’ on shell fragments predominantly from blue or horse mussels (Ian Reach, Natural England, pers. comm.).

As S. spinulosa is a sedentary species, it relies on wave and current action to supply food and wash away waste products (Kirtley, 1992[10]). Strong water movement is required for food provisions, but is perhaps more important to raise sediment into suspension for tube building (Jones, 1999[11]). As a result, S. spinulosa colonies are typically located in areas of weak to moderately strong water flow (Jones et al., 2000[12]). It also appears to favour locations around the edges of sand banks or areas with sand waves (Foster‐Smith, 2001a[13]). S. spinulosa typically occurs subtidally in depths of a few meters to up to 40 m depth (Caspers, 1950[14]; George and Warwick, 1985; Connor et al., 1997[4]; Jessop and Stoutt, 2006[15]), but can occur in depths up to 600 m (Hartmann-Schröder, 1971). S. spinulosa occasionally occurs in the lower intertidal zone (Jessop and Stoutt, 2006[15]).

Reproduction and Development

The fecundity and recruitment of S. spinulosa is known to be variable (e.g. Linke, 1951[16]; Wilson, 1971[17]; Michaelis, 1978[18]; George and Warwick, 1985[19]). The family Sabellariidae are broadcast spawners, reproducing sexually, resulting in larvae that drift passively in the plankton (Schäfer, 1972[7]; Eckelbarger, 1978[20]). The larvae can spend a few weeks to several months in the plankton (Wilson, 1929[21]) before seeking appropriate conditions for settlement (Wilson, 1968[22]; Eckelbarger, 1978[20]). If conditions are unsuitable, the larvae are able to delay metamorphosis for several weeks. Physical factors alone have limited influence on settlement (Wilson, 1968[23]) and settlement and metamorphosis is strongly influenced by the tube cement of other sabellariids (Wilson, 1968[23]; 1970[24]; Eckelbarger, 1978[20]; Jensen, 1992[25]). This mechanism ensures settlement in a suitable habitat and promotes the development of large colonies.

Despite only a few studies investigating the rate at which S. spinulosa can extend their dwelling tubes (Hendrick, 2007[26]; Davies et al., 2009[27] being exceptions), it appears that sabellariid reefs develop quickly following successful settlement (Linke, 1951[16]; Vorberg, 2000[28]; Stewart et al., 2004[29]; Braithwaite et al., 2006[30]). Last et al. (2011)[31] observed that tube extension rates are highly variable and that they could grow up to 6 mm a day for several days when provided with an adequate sediment supply.

Little is known about the longevity of S. spinulosa colonies, but sabellariids are expected to survive for 1-2 years (Kirtley, 1966[32]; McCarthy, 2001[33]; McCarthy et al., 2003[34]), with some reports of longer life spans (Wilson, 1974[35]; George and Warwick, 1985[19]). It is likely that the age of an actual colony may greatly exceed the age of the oldest individuals. This is particularly likely as sabellariid larvae are stimulated to metamorphose by conspecific secretions, encouraging continuous succession of generations.

Sabellaria alveolata

Environmental Requirements

Reproduction and Development

Mytilus spp.

Environmental Requirements

Reproduction and Development

Modiolus modiolus

Environmental Requirements

Reproduction and Development

VULNERABILITY & THREATS

GENERAL SUMMARY

Sabellaria spinulosa

Sabellaria alveolata

Modiolus modiolus

Mytilus spp.

NATURAL AND ANTHROPOGENIC THREAT

Sabellaria spinulosa

Physical threats
Chemical threats
Biological threats

Sabellaria alveolata

Physical threats
Chemical threats
Biological threats

Mytilus spp.

Physical threats
Chemical threats
Biological threats

Modiolus modiolus

Physical threats
Chemical threats
Biological threats

KEY PROCESSES TO FOCUS ON FOR MAINTAINING ECOSYSTEMS INTEGRITY

CURRENT MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Sabellaria spinulosa

Sabellaria alveolata

Mytilus spp.

Modiolus modiolus

SEE ALSO

Theseus Official Deliverable 3.3-Natural habitats for coastal protection and relevant multi-stressor coastal risks. Report and European Scale overview.

REFERENCES

  1. ↑ JACKSON J., 1977. Competition on marine hard substrata: the adaptive significance of solitary and colonial strategies. The American Naturalist, 111, 743-767.
  2. ↑ WOOD R., 1999. Reef Evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford. pp. 414. Availbale from: [1]
  3. ↑ CHISHOLM J.R.M., & KELLEY R., 2001. Worms start the reef-building process. Nature. 409, 152 153.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 CONNOR D., DALKIN M., HILL T., HOLT R. & SANDERSON W., 1997. Marine Nature Conservation Review: marine biotope classification for Britain and Ireland. Volume 2. Sublittoral biotopes. Version 97.06. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough. pp 448. Available from: [2]
  5. ↑ HOLT T., HARTNOLL R. & HAWKINS S., 1997. Sensitivity and vulnerability to man‐induced change of selected communities: intertidal brown algal shrubs, Zostera beds and Sabellaria spinulosa reefs. English Nature Research Reports. No. 234. pp97.
  6. ↑ WARREN P.J., SHELDON R.W., 1967. Feeding and migration patterns of the Pink Shrimp Pandalus montagui, in the estuary of the River Crouch, England, Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 24, 569-580.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 SCHAFER W., 1972. Ecology and Palaeoecology of Marine Environments. Translation of Aktuo-paläontologie nach Studien in der Nordsee. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. pp 568. Availbale from: [3]
  8. ↑ WARREN P., 1973. The fishery for the pink shrimp Pandalus montagui of the Wash. Laboratory Leaflet (New Series) No. 28. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Lowestoft. pp. 46.
  9. ↑ LIMPENNY D.S., FOSTER‐SMITH R.L., EDWARDS T.M., HENDRICK V.J., DIESING M., EGGLETON J.D., MEADOWS W.J., CRUTCHFIELD Z., PFEIFER S., & REACH I.S., 2010.Best methods for identifying and evaluating Sabellaria spinulosa and cobble reef. Aggregate Levy Sustainability Fund Project MAL0008. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough. pp 134.
  10. ↑ KIRTLEY D.J., 1992. Built to last. Worm reefs. A feat of natural engineering. Florida Oceanographic Magazine. 13, 12‐19.
  11. ↑ JONES L., 1999. Habitat Action Plan: Sabellaria spinulosa reefs. English Nature. pp 4.
  12. ↑ JONES L.A., HISCOCK K., CONNOR D.W., 2000. Marine habitat reviews. A summary of ecological requirements and sensitivity characteristics for the conservation and management of marine SACs. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough. (UK Marine SACs Project report).
  13. ↑ FOSTER‐SMITH R.L., 2001a. Report of the field survey for the 2001 Sabellaria spinulosa project. A report for the Eastern Sea Fisheries Joint Committee and English Nature. pp 45.
  14. ↑ CASPERS H., 1950. Die Lebensgemeinschaft der Helgolander Austernbank. Helgoland Marine Research. 3, 119-169. Available from: [4]7.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 JESSOP R. & STOUTT J., 2006. Broad scale Sabellaria spinulosa distribution in the central Wash (Southern North Sea), as predicted with the acoustic ground discriminating system (A.G.D.S) RoxannTM. Draft report by the Eastern Sea Fisheries Joint Committee for English Nature. pp 26.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 LINKE O., 1951. Neue Beobachtungen uber Sandkorallen‐Riffe in der Nordsee, Natur u.Volk.. 81, 77-84.
  17. ↑ WILSON D.P., 1971. Sabellaria colonies At Duckpool, North Cornwall, 1961‐1970. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK, 51: 509‐580. Available form: [5]
  18. ↑ MICHAELIS H., 1978. Recent biological phenomena in the German Waddensea. Symposium on North Sea fish stocks- recent changes and their causes., Aarhus (Denmark).
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 GEORGE C., & WARWICK R., 1985. Annual production in a hard‐bottom reef community. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 65: 713-735. Availble from: [6].
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 ECKELBARGER K.J., 1978. Metamorphosis and settlement in the Sabellariidae. In: Chai, F.--‐S. & Rice, M. (Eds.). Settlement and Metamorphosis of Marine Invertebrate Larvae.Proceedings of the Symposium on Settlement and Metamorphosis of Marine Invertebrate Larvae, American Zoological Society Meeting. Totonto, Ontario, Canada December 27-28, 1977. Elsevier, New York: pp. 145-164.
  21. ↑ WILSON D.P., 1929. The larvae of the British Sabellarians. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 15: 221‐269.
  22. ↑ WILSON D.P., 1968.The settlement behavior of the larvae of Sabellaria alveolata. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. 48: 387‐435.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 WILSON D.P., 1968.The settlement behavior of the larvae of Sabellaria alveolata. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. 48, 387‐435.
  24. ↑ WILSON D.P., 1970. The larvae of Sabellaria Spinulosa and their settlement behaviour. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. 50, 33-52. Available from: [7]
  25. ↑ JENSEN R.A., 1992. Marine bioadhesive: role for chemosensory recognition in a marine invertebrate. Biofouling. 5, 177-193.
  26. ↑ HENDRICK V. J., FOSTER‐SMITH R. L. & DAVIES A. J., 2011. Biogenic Reefs and the Marine Aggregate Industry. Marine ALSF Science Monograph Series No. 3. MEPF 10/P149. (Edited by R. C. NEWELL & J. MEASURES). 60pp. ISBN: 978 0 907545 46 0.
  27. ↑ DAVIES A.J., LAST K.S., ATTARD K., HENDRICK V.J., 2009. Maintaining turbidity and current flow in laboratory aquarium studies, a case study using Sabellaria spinulosa. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 370, 35-40.
  28. ↑ VORBERG R., 2000. Effects of the shrimp fisheries on reefs of Sabellaria spinulosa (Polychaeta). ICES Journal of Marine Science. 57, 1416-1420.
  29. ↑ STEWART R.J., WEAVER J.C., MORSE D.E. & WAITE J.H., 2004. The tube cement of Phragmatopoma californica: a solid foam. Journal of Experimental Biology. 207, 4727-4734.
  30. ↑ BRAITHWAITE C.J.R., ROBINSON R.J., & JONES G., 2006. Sabellarids: a hidden danger or an aid to subsea pipelines? Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology. 39, 259‐265.
  31. ↑ LAST K.S., HENDRICK V.J., BEVERIDGE C.M. & DAVIES A.J., 2011. Measuring the effects of suspended particulate matter and smothering on the behaviour, growth and survival of key species found in areas associated with aggregate dredging. Report for the Marine Aggregate Levy Sustainability Fund, Project MEPF 08/P76. 69 pp.
  32. ↑ KIRTLEY D.J., 1966. Intertidal reefs of Sabellariidae (Annelida polychaeta) along the coasts of Florida. Masters thesis. The Florida State University. Tallahassee, Florida. 104 pp. Original reference not seen. Cited by Drake, C.A., McCarthy, D.A. & von Dohlen, C.D. (2007). Molecular relationships and species divergence among Phragmatopoma spp. (Polychaeta: Sabellaridae) in the Americas. Marine Biology 150(3): 345‐358.
  33. ↑ MCCARTHY D., 2001. Life-history patterns and the role of disturbance in intertidal and subtidal populations of the polychaete Phragmatopoma lapidosa lapidosa (Kinberg, 1867) in the tropical Western Atlantic. PhD Thesis. Kings College, University of London. Original reference not seen. Cited by Drake, C.A., McCarthy, D.A. & von Dohlen, C.D. (2007).Molecular relationships and species divergence among Phragmatopoma spp. (Polychaeta: Sabellaridae) in the Americas. Marine Biology. 150(3), 345‐ 358.
  34. ↑ MCCARTHY D., YOUNG C. & EMSON R., 2003. Influence of wave induced disturbance on seasonal spawning patterns in the sabellariid polychaete Phragmatopoma lapidosa. Marine Ecological Progress Series. 256, 123-133.
  35. ↑ WILSON D.P., 1974. Sabellaria Colonies at Duckpool, North Cornwall, 1971–1972, With a Note for May 1973. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. 54, 393‐436.



The main authors of this article are Firth, Louise, Davies, Andrew, Hawkins, Stephan, Airoldi, Laura and Colangelo, Marina Antonia
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