Kust Wiki - Nieuwe pagina's [nl]

PEGASO indicator core set

2013-05-14T06:34:36Z

NathalieD:

__NOTITLE__
PEGASO core set of indicators

=== INDICATORS FOR [[Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)|INTEGRATED COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT (ICZM)]] : Methodological Factsheets in support of comparable measurements and an integrated assessment in coastal zones ===

The '''[[Mediterranean ICZM Protocol|ICZM Protocol for the Mediterranean Sea]]''' (the 'ICZM Protocol'), signed in Madrid on 21 January 2008 and ratified on 24 March 2011, represents a milestone for the implementation of ICZM in the Region and can serve as a blueprint for the implementation of ICZM in other Regional Seas. The '''[http://www.pegasoproject.eu PEGASO project]''' builds on existing capacities and develops common approaches to support integrated policies for the Mediterranean and Black Sea Basins in ways that are consistent with the [[Mediterranean ICZM Protocol|ICZM Protocol]].

The [http://www.pegasoproject.eu PEGASO project] has developed a '''core set of indicators''' that are instrumental in measuring the implementation of ICZM policies and programmes. The core set of ICZM indicators addresses the specific requirement of Article 27 of the Protocol to 'define coastal management indicators' and 'establish and maintain up-to-date '''assessments of the use and management of coastal zones''''. In doing so, the [http://www.pegasoproject.eu PEGASO project] has widely built on previous and existing indicator sets developed by different institutions and projects, and which are duly acknowledged (see '[[media:PEGASO T4.1 Indicator methodological paper V1.pdf|Methodological paper for the selection and application of PEGASO ICZM indicators]]' for further reading and background material)

The present Methodological Factsheet is part of a set of 15 factsheets that are made available to end-users. This set of factsheets is conceived to support a harmonized approach to calculate ICZM indicators at different spatial scales in the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions.

* [[Media:PEGASO Added value per sector.pdf|Added value per sector]]
* [[Media:PEGASO Area of built-up space.pdf|Area of built-up space]]
* [[Media:PEGASO Bathing water quality.pdf|Bathing water quality]]
* [[Media:PEGASO Commercial fish stocks.pdf|Commercial fish stocks]]
* [[Media:PEGASO Coastal and marine litter.pdf|Coastal and marine litter]]
* [[Media:PEGASO Economic production.pdf|Economic Production]]
* [[Media:PEGASO Employment.pdf|Employment]]
* [[Media:PEGASO Erosion and instability.pdf|Erosion and instability]]
* [[Media:PEGASO Natural capital.pdf|Natural capital]]
* [[Media:PEGASO Hypoxia.pdf|Hypoxia]]
* [[Media:PEGASO Number of enterprises.pdf|Number of enterprises]]
* [[Media:PEGASO Population size and density.pdf|Population size and density]]
* [[Media:PEGASO Risk assessment.pdf|Risk assessment]]
* [[Media:PEGASO Sea level rise.pdf|Sea level rise]]
* [[Media:PEGASO Water efficiency index.pdf|Water efficiency index]]

{{author
|AuthorID=7075
|AuthorFullName=Ann-Katrien Lescrauwaet
|AuthorName=Ann-Katrien Lescrauwaet}}

[[category:PEGASO]]
[[category:Coastal and marine areas and locations‏‎]]
[[category:Coastal and marine fisheries‏‎]]
[[category:Coastal and marine human activities‏‎]]
[[category:Coastal and marine industry‏‎]]
[[category:Coastal and marine information and knowledge management‏‎]]
[[category:Coastal and marine issues and impacts‏‎]]
[[category:Coastal and marine natural environment‏‎]]
[[category:Coastal and marine pollution]]
[[category:Coastal and marine system‏‎]]
[[category:Coastal erosion‏‎]]
[[category:Coastal erosion management‏‎]]
[[category:Coastal flooding]]
[[category:Coastal management]]
[[category:Marine biodiversity and ecosystem functioning‏‎]]
[[category:Marine habitats and ecosystems‏‎]]
[[category:Maritime transportation‏‎]]
[[category:Mediterranean]]
[[category:Remote Sensing in Coastal and Marine Research‏‎]]
[[category:Shoreline management]]
[[category:Spatial planning in coastal and marine zones‏‎]]
[[category:The ICZM Process‏‎]]

Langoustine

2013-05-06T14:45:22Z

NancyFockedey:

{{Visportaal|Naam=Langoustine
|Foto= <div style="padding:0.5em 0em 0em 0em">
[[Image:Langoustine 3570(Decleer)-MR.jpg|caption|right|230px|]]Foto: Decleer [VLIZ]</div>
|abstract=

De langoustine of Noorse kreeft (''Nephrops norvegicus'') komt voor in de Oost-Atlantische Oceaan. Deze kleine zeekreeftjes leven op een modderige bodem in holen. Ook de Noordzee is rijk aan langoustines; de zone waar de Vlaamse vissers ze traditioneel gaan vissen, wordt ook wel eens de “kreeftenput” genoemd. De Vlaamse langoustinevisserij kende in de jaren ‘80 een groot succes. Momenteel is de aanvoer ervan door Vlaamse vissersschepen sterk gedaald, er wordt amper nog een zesde van het langoustinequotum opgevist (data 2011). Op de Vlaamse markt worden meestal alleen de gekookte staarten van langoustines verkocht. In het West-Vlaams zijn deze staartjes dan ook beter gekend als “gatjes”. Heel soms vind je ook langoustines in hun geheel: vers of in de diepvries; al dan niet gekookt.}}

 
 

===Wetenschappelijke naam===

[http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=107254 ''Nephrops norvegicus'' (Linnaeus, 1758)]

 

===Andere benamingen===

* Nederlands: langoustine, Noorse kreeft
* Engels: Norway lobster, Dublin Bay prawn, scampi, langoustine
* Frans: langoustine, cacahouete <ref name=WORMS>World Register of Marine Species – ''Nephrops norvegicus'' [http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=107254 online beschikbaar]</ref>.

Voor meer namen in andere talen [http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=107254 klik hier]


 


===Hoe te herkennen?===

Langoustines zijn kleine zeekreeften die 15 tot 20 cm lang kunnen worden (zonder de scharen meegerekend). De mannelijke langoustines groeien sneller dan de vrouwtjes en worden maximaal 10 jaar. De vrouwelijke langoustines groeien langzamer en kunnen tot 20 jaar oud worden.
De voorste poten van zowel de mannelijke als vrouwelijke langoustines zijn net zoals bij kreeften sterk ontwikkeld en eindigen in scharen.
<ref>Lekker van bij ons – langoustine [geconsulteerd: 03.08.2012] [http://www.lekkervanbijons.be/productfiche/Langoustine online beschikbaar] </ref>
<ref>FishOnline – Norway lobster [geconsulteerd: 02.05.2013]
[http://www.fishonline.org/fish/norway-lobster-langoustine-dublin-bay-prawn-or-scampi-333 online beschikbaar] </ref>

 


[tot hier ingeplugd 06.05.2013 17:00]

===Biologie & ecologie===
====Verspreidingsgebied====
{| style="float:right; text-align:center; font-size:85%; margin-left: 5px"
| [[Image:Verspreiding_scharretong.jpg|400px|]]
|-
|Kaart: Verspreiding scharretong <ref>Fishbase – Lepidorhombus whiffiagonis [geconsulteerd: 04.08.2012] [http://www.fishbase.org/summary/Lepidorhombus-whiffiagonis.html online beschikbaar] </ref>
|}
Scharretong leeft in de Noordoost-Atlantische oceaan in de wateren rond IJsland en de Faroer Eilanden, het gebied ten westen van de Britse Eilanden, de noordelijke Noordzee en het Skagerrak en Kattegat, langs de kustlijn van de Golf van Biskaje en Marokko, in de westelijke Middelandse zee en Egeïsche Zee <ref name=one>Nielsen, R., Shared Nordic Marine Stocks: Fish and shellfish, Nordic Council of Ministers</ref>. Scharretong is geen soort van onze kust. De soort is enkel nu en dan eens als dwaalgast aanwezig in de zuidelijke en centrale Noordzee en het Kanaal <ref>Nijssen, H.; de Groot, S.J. (1987). De vissen van Nederland.Natuurhistorische Bibliotheek van de KNNV, 43. KNNV Uitgeverij: Utrecht. ISBN 90-5011-006-1. 224 pp. [http://www.vliz.be/imis/imis.php?module=ref&refid=6600 details] </ref>.

 


====Leefomgeving====

Scharretong leeft, zoals alle platvissen, in de nabijheid van de bodem. De soort verkiest daarbij diepere wateren van rond de 100-400 meter tot maximaal 700 meter diep. Toch zijn deze dieren heel soms wel eens te vinden aan het wateroppervlak en in de kustwateren. De soort prefereert zanderige bodems waar ze zich lichtjes ingraven <ref name=one> </ref>.
 
 
 

====Levenscyclus====

Scharretong paait in de lente in diep water rond IJsland <ref name=zilt>Aikens, T. (2009). Zilt: het ultieme viskookboek. Inmerc BV: Netherlands. ISBN 978-906611550-7. 352 pp. [http://www.vliz.be/imis/imis.php?module=ref&refid=142917 details] </ref> en van januari tot april aan de rand van de [[continentale plaat]] in het zuiden en westen van de Britse eilanden<ref name=fishonline>Fishonline - Lepidorhombus whiffiagonis [geconsulteerd: 09.08.2012] [http://fishonline.org/search-results?common_name=Megrim&fish_method_of_production=1&fish_named_capture_area=1&fish_production_country=0&fish_production_method_detail=0&scientific_name=Lepidorhombus+whiffiagonis&fish_capture_method_detail=0&fish_farmed_type=0&fish_stock_detail=0&fish_production_area=0&op=Search&form_build_id=form-077ac4062574aac9e0936a9c69bfdad5&form_id=stfish_search_short_form online beschikbaar]</ref>. Ook in de Middelandse Zee zijn paaigronden ontdekt van scharretong <ref>Wikipedia - Megrim [geconsulteerd: 27.08.2012] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megrim online beschikbaar] </ref>. De 1 millimeter grote eieren komen na een week uit. De larven blijven, tot ze ca. 20 mm lang zijn, in de waterkolom rondzweven ([[pelagisch]]) en drijven zo mee met de stromingen richting Keltische Zee en Golf van Biskaje <ref>Ibaibarriaga, L.; Irigoien, X.; Santos, M.; Motos, L.; Fives, J.M.; Franco, C.; Lagos, N.A.; Acevedo, S.; Bernal, M.; Bez, N.; Eltink, G.; Farinha, A.; Hammer, C.; Iversen, S.A.; Milligan, S.P.; Reid, D.G. (2007). Egg and larval distributions of seven fish species in north-east Atlantic waters Fish. Oceanogr. 16(3): 284-293</ref>.

Daar waar de volwassen exemplaren in zowel diep als ondiep water kunnen voorkomen, vinden we de juvenielen alleen in diepere zones terug<ref>Allan, R., Robinson,K., Brink, H,. (1977), Sea: Ideas and Observations on Progress in the Study of the Seas, Wiley</ref>. Er is nog geen informatie bekend over de migratiepatronen van de scharretong <ref name=one> </ref>.

Scharretongen bereiken de sexuele rijpheid op een gemiddelde lengte van 20 cm en een leeftijd van 2,5 jaar oud, al is dat bij mannetjes iets eerder dan bij vrouwtjes <ref name=fishonline> </ref> <ref name=otol>Landa, J. and Pin˜ eiro, C. (2000). Megrim (Lepidorhombus whiffiagonis) growth in the North-eastern Atlantic based on back-calculation of otolith rings. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57: 1077–1090. [http://icesjms.oxfordjournals.org/content/57/4/1077.full.pdf online beschikbaar] </ref>.

Scharretong kan uitzonderlijk tot 60 cm groot worden en 15 jaar oud worden, maar meestal worden ze maar 35 tot 45 cm groot <ref name=fishonline> </ref>.

 

====Eten en gegeten worden====
Het dieet van de scharretong bestaat hoofdzakelijk uit dierlijk voedsel zoals grote bodemdieren (vnl. kreeftachtigen) en visjes zoals spiering, wijting en horsmakreel <ref>Pinnegar, JK and Trenkel, VM and Tidd, AN and Dawson, WA and others (2003), Does diet in Celtic Sea fishes reflect prey availability?, Journal of Fish Biology, 63, 197-212</ref>, alhoewel scharretong ook inktvissen kan eten<ref name=WORMS> </ref><ref>Wikipedia – Scharretong [geconsulteerd: 28.08.2012] [http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scharretong) online beschikbaar] </ref>.

In de natuur zijn vooral haaien de belangrijste predators voor de volwassen dieren die onder een laagje zand begraven leven<ref>Waterwereld – Schol [geconsulteerd: 28.08.2012] [http://www.waterwereld.nu/schol.php online beschikbaar] </ref>. Haaien hebben organen die de elektrische activiteit waarnemen welke door bewegingen van de scharretong worden opgewekt<ref>Ansell, A.D., Gibson, R.N., 1993. The effect of sand and light on predation of juvenile place (Pleuronectes platessa) by fishes and crustaceans. J. Fish Biol. 43, 837–845</ref>

 

===Visserij & kweek===
====België====

Scharretong is bij ons geen populaire consumptievis en bijgevolg dus geen commerciële soort in België. Toch zit de soort wel eens als bijvangst in de netten van de grotere Belgische [[boomkorren|boomkorvaartuigen]] die op tong en pladijs in de diepere wateren van de Keltische en Ierse zee en de Golf van Biskaje vissen <ref name=zilt> </ref>. Zeer lage aantallen van scharretong worden gevangen in de noordelijke Noordzee en Noorse Zee <ref name=AB>Tessens, E.; Velghe, M. (Ed.) (2011). De Belgische zeevisserij: aanvoer en besomming 2010. De Belgische zeevisserij: aanvoer en besomming, 2010. Vlaamse Overheid. Departement Landbouw en Visserij. Afdeling Landbouw- en Visserijbeleid. Zeevisserij: Oostende. 115 pp. [http://www.vliz.be/imis/imis.php?module=ref&refid=209014 details] </ref>. Bijna 75% van de aangevoerde scharretong door Belgische vissers gaat naar Spanje, Frankrijk en Italie <ref name=zilt> </ref>.

 


====Wereldwijd====

Jaarlijks wordt er wereldwijd tussen de 8000 en de 16.000 ton scharretong (Lepidorhombus whiffiagonis) gevangen <ref name=FAO>FOA Species Fact Sheets - Lepidorhombus whiffiagonis [geconsulteerd:04.08.2012] [http://www.fao.org/fishery/species/2560/en online beschikbaar]</ref>. De soort wordt voornamelijk aangeland door Spanje en het Verenigd Koninkrijk. Maar ook Franse, Ierse, Belgische en Portugese hebben hun deel in de aanlandingen <ref name=otol> </ref>.

De meeste scharretongen die in Engeland aangeland worden, zijn gevangen met de [[boomkorren|boomkor]], in Ierland voornamelijk met [[bordennetten]] <ref>ICES Advice – Fishstocks - Megrim (Lepidorhombus spp.) in Divisions IVa and VIa, (2012) [http://www.ices.dk/committe/acom/comwork/report/2012/2012/meg-4a6a.pdf online beschikbaar] </ref>. Vissersschepen die vissen in de Golf van Biskaje, de Portugese Kust en West Portugal gebruiken voornamelijk de [[boomkorren|boomkor]]. Elders wordt scharretong gevangen met [[bordennetten]] voor gemengde vis, waarbij ook zeeduivel en heek gevangen wordt <ref name=otol> </ref><ref>ICES Advice – Fishstocks - Megrim (Lepidorhombus whiffiagonis) in Divisions VIIIc and IXa, (2012) [http://www.ices.dk/committe/acom/comwork/report/2012/2012/mgw-8c9a.pdf online beschikbaar] </ref>.

[[Image:FAO_wereldwijdevangst_scharretong.gif|caption|center|600px|]]
<div style="text-align: center;font-size:80%">Wereldwijde vangst van scharretong <ref name=FAO> </ref>
<div style="text-align: left;font-size:120%">

====Kweek====

Momenteel is er geen kweek van scharretong.

 

===Beheer===
De status van de soort wordt jaarlijks geëvalueerd door de wetenschappers binnen [[ICES]] <ref name=IM>ICES – Advice – Fishstocks - Megrim [geconsulteerd:04.08.2012] [http://www.ices.dk/committe/acom/comwork/report/asp/advice.asp online beschikbaar] </ref>, die vier verschillende bestanden van scharretong onderscheiden: drie noordelijke bestanden ([http://users.skynet.be/gzd.be/images/reglementen/Kaart%20ICES%20gebieden.jpg VIIb–k+ VIIIa,b,d, IVa + Via en IVb] ) en een zuidelijke bestand ([http://users.skynet.be/gzd.be/images/reglementen/Kaart%20ICES%20gebieden.jpg VIIIc en IXa]). Maar dit onderscheid blijkt ondertussen artificieel. Biologisch zouden er geen verschillen zijn tussen de zgn. zuidelijke en noordelijke bestanden en zou men maar over één bestand mogen spreken <ref name=otol> </ref>.

De Belgen ruilen nogal wat quota voor andere soorten en gebieden die voor hen minder interessant zijn, voor extra quota van scharretong in hun traditionele visserijgebieden. Het Belgische vangstquotum voor scharretong ligt om en bij de 500 ton per jaar<ref name=AB> </ref>. Maar toch brengen ze maar de helft van dat totale quotum binnen in de vismijn, jaarlijk zowat rond de 200 ton. Daar zit de lage tot zeer lage prijs voor een groot deel tussen: in 2010 werd in Belgische vismijnen amper € 1,67 betaald per kilo scharretong. Van 2005 tot 2010 verbeterde de prijs ietsje, zodat de omzet navenant ook terug verhoogde <ref name=AB> </ref>.
 
 
[[Image:Quota_scharretong.JPG|caption|center|400px|]]
<div style="text-align: center;font-size:80%">Evolutie van de vangstquota op scharretong<ref name=FAO> </ref>

<div style="text-align: left;font-size:140%">

Wanneer het quotum in een bepaald gebied overschreden wordt kan dit lijden tot de (tijdelijke) stopzetting van de visserij, zoals het geval was in 2003 voor het vissen van scharretong in de Golf van Biskaje en Zuid-Bretagne<ref>Europa Nu.Stopzetting van de visserij op scharretong door vaartuigen die de vlag van België voeren (15.09.2003) [http://www.europa-nu.nl/9353000/1/j9vvikqpopjt8zm/vi8rm2z14wz5 online beschikbaar] </ref>.

 


===Duurzaamheid===
'''Bestanden'''
 
De bestanden van scharretong doen het niet zo slecht anno 2012. De vangstmogelijkheden voor scharretong in het zuidelijk bestand zijn zelfs met 11% verhoogd<ref>Fisheries and aquaculture in Europe = Visserij en aquacultuur in Europa 53. European Commission. Directorate for Fisheries. Communication and Information Unit: Brussel. [http://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/documentation/magazine/mag55_nl.pdf online beschikbaar] </ref>. De vier bestanden zijn wel niet zo heel goed gekend door de wetenschap, maar alle vier de bestanden zijn wel stabiel. Hoewel er indicaties zijn dat de bestanden gezond zijn, stelt [[ICES]] toch voor om de vangsten niet te verhogen, uit voorzorgprincipe tot er meer details bekend zijn <ref name=IM> </ref><ref name=fishonline> </ref>.
 
 
'''Minimum aanlandingsmaat'''
 
De minimum aanlandingsmaat voor scharretong in EU wateren bedraagt 20 cm, de lengte waarbij scharretong gemiddeld sexueel matuur wordt (25 cm in Skagerak/Kattegat). Men vermoedt dat er heel wat teruggooi gebeurt van scharretong, zelfs van dieren die groter zijn dan de minimum aanlandinsgmaat, om aan de markt te voldoen, die vooral naar de grotere dieren vraagt <ref>Vlaamse Overheid, Landbouw en Visserij. Jaaroverzicht zeevisserijsector 2010., [http://lv.vlaanderen.be/nlapps/docs/default.asp?id=2260 online beschikbaar] </ref>.

 

'''Vismethodes'''
 
De meeste scharretong wordt in Europa bevist met [[boomkorren]] en [[bordennetten]]. Deze methoden zorgen voor nogal wat bodemberoering en bodemschade en verbruiken veel brandstof. Bovendien zijn ze zeer onselectief. Er is veel bijvangst van ondermaatse vis en andere soorten (14). Toch kan men bijkomende technische maatregelen nemen om de selectiviteit te verhogen door de niet-doelsoorten te vermijden of levend te laten ontsnappen <ref>Ecomare – Ecomare encyclopedie – Visserijtechnieken - Boomkorvisserij [geconsulteerd: 09.08.2012] [http://www.ecomare.nl/nl/ecomare-encyclopedie/mens-en-milieu/visserij/visserijtechnieken/boomkorvisserij/ online beschikbaar] </ref><ref name=fishonline> </ref>.

Indien je meer wilt weten over de ecologische duurzaamheidsevaluatie van scharretong in de verschillende gebieden en met de verschillende vistechnieken, dan kan je terecht op de website van de [http://fishonline.org/search-results?common_name=&fish_method_of_production=0&fish_named_capture_area=0&fish_production_country=0&fish_production_method_detail=0&scientific_name=Lepidorhombus&fish_capture_method_detail=0&fish_farmed_type=0&fish_stock_detail=0&fish_production_area=0&op=Search&form_build_id=form-c008f538bfcacacf0f3e0750e33abeb4&form_id=stfish_search_short_form Marine Conservation Society ]

 


===Culinair===

Scharretong is bij ons culinair niet zeer gewaardeerd, waardoor de visser er geen goede prijs voor betaald krijgt. Nochtans wordt de soort in Spanje, Frankrijk en Italie zeer gegeerd.

Scharretong kan pladijs vervangen, alhoewel het vlees een beetje droger is. Daarom vinden veel mensen scharretong het lekkerst als die bereid is met veel vetstof, in de pan gebakken of met boter of olie bedropen in de oven.

Scharretong is een vis met een losse textuur en een zoete, zuivere smaak. Hij is goedkoper dan de tonschar en tong en ook minder vlezig. De beste methode om scharretong te bereiden is op de graat <ref name=zilt> </ref>.

 

'''Voedingswaarde per 100 g:''' <ref name=visinfo>Visinfo - Lepidorhombus whiffiagonis [geconsulteerd: 09.08.2012] [http://visinfo.be/vis/detail_nl.phtml?id=24 online beschikbaar]</ref>

* Energie : 360 kJ / 85 kcal
* Eiwitten : 17,0 g
* Vetten: 1,5 g
 

'''België'''
 
{|style="float:right; text-align:center; font-size:85%; margin-left: 5px"
| [[Image:Droogvis_11520_(Coppieters)_2.jpg|250px]]
|-
|Hangende droogvis aan een winkeltje
[http://www.vliz.be/vmdcdata/photogallery/sea.php?album=594&pic=11520 VLIZ Fotogalerij Onze Kust]
 
Coppieters [VLIZ], 2007.
|}
Scharretong wordt in België traditioneel gebruikt voor droogvis. Het vet, dat na het drogen zeer uitdrukkelijk doorsmaakt, is bij deze vis zeer smakelijk. Omdat scharretong steeds minder op de Belgische markt aanwezig is, worden ze bij het maken van droogvis vaak vervangen door scharren (in het dialect “schulletjes” genoemd – Limanda limanda). De ogen van een scharretong zitten op de linkerkant, terwijl die van een schar op de rechterkant van het lichaam zitten. Maar bij droogvis wordt de kop vaak verwijderd, waardoor het voor niet-kenners moeilijk is om de twee soorten te onderscheiden. Toch zijn gedroogde scharretongen gewoonlijk wat doorzichtiger; scharren zijn bovenaan meestal wat donkerder <ref>Rappé, O. (2011). Droogvis: vroeger en nu, in: Lescrauwaet, A.-K. et al. (Ed.) (2011). Abstractenboek studiedag "Vissen in het verleden. Een multidisciplinaire kijk op de geschiedenis van de Belgische zeevisserij". VLIZ Special Publication, 54: pp. 64-66: [http://www.vliz.be/imis/imis.php?module=ref&refid=212479 details]</ref>.

Scharretong wordt het meest bereid nadat aan beide kanten de huid is verwijderd. Erna wordt hij op de graat goudbruin gebakken in hete boter. Om het volledig af te maken wordt er een beetje citroensap overgegoten <ref name=zilt> </ref>.

 

'''Wereldwijd'''
 
In Frankrijk wordt scharretong veel gegeten, waar ze hem ''cardine'' of ''cardine franche'' noemen. Het is een soort die typisch door de Bretoense vissers wordt aangeland en lokaal een specialiteit (vnl. in Concarneau)<ref>Philippe Urvois (2009). Cuisiner la mer: Choisir, préparer, savourer. Editions Ouest-France, ISBN 2-7373-1696-0</ref>. De meeste scharretong wordt echer in Spanje – in Baskenkand en Gacilië - gegeten waar hij ''gallo'' heet <ref name=zilt> </ref>. De Italiaanse naam voor scharretong is ''rombo giallo''<ref name=WORMS> </ref>.


 

[[scharretong_recepten|'''Voor Belgische en internationale recepten met scharretong''']]
 


===Benaming===

Laat je niet misleiden door de Nederlandse naam van de scharretong. Hij is noch verwant aan de schar, noch aan de tong. In het dialect wordt scharretong “schotse schullen” of “scheve mullen” genoemd. De vissers van Boulogne gebruikten de scharretong vroeger aan boord voor hun vissoep en noemden hem enigszins oncomplimenteus salope (‘smeerlap’)<ref>Davidson, A. (2001). Noord-Atlantisch viskookboek. Scepter: Bussum, The Netherlands. 556 pp. [http://www.vliz.be/imis/imis.php?module=ref&refid=26106 details] </ref>. Schartong wordt door onze vissers doorgaans Schotse school of Schotse schulle genoemd naar het vangstgebied aan de Schotse kust <ref name=visinfo> </ref>.

===Foto's en filmpjes===
<div style="float:left">
<div style="float:left; min-height:200px; margin:5px"> [[Image:57510_orig.jpg|250px|]]</div>
<div style="float:left; min-height:200px; margin:5px">[[Image:93781_orig.jpg|250px|]]</div>
<div style="float:left; min-height:100px; margin:5px">[[Image:44224_orig.jpg|250px|]]</div>
<div style="float:left; min-height:100px; margin:5px">[[Image:96723_orig.jpg|250px|]]</div>
 
<ref name=eol>Encyclopedia of Life - Lepidorhombus whiffiagonis - Media [http://eol.org/pages/216881/media online beschikbaar]</ref>
</div>

 


===Meer lezen===
[http://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/231513.pdf Droogvis vroeger en nu]

[http://www.ices.dk/committe/acom/comwork/report/asp/advice.asp?titlesearch=&Region=-1&Species=50&Period=-1&submit1=Submit+Query&mode=2 ICES advies visbestanden]

[http://www.fao.org/fishery/species/2560/en FAO factsheet]

Lector: Kristof Ceuterick en Nancy Fockedey


 


===Referenties===
<references/>

Seaweed cosmetics - "Oceanwell"

2013-04-19T10:46:45Z

Angelm: Created page with "== Algae farming == The company oceanBASIS cultivates the sugarkelp Saccharina latissima in an integrative sustainable aquaculture facility in the Kiel Fjord. The company is ..."

== Algae farming ==

The company oceanBASIS cultivates the sugarkelp Saccharina
latissima in an integrative sustainable aquaculture facility in the
Kiel Fjord. The company is specialised in extracting natural substances
from marine organisms and developes natural products
for health and beauty such as cosmetics.

Seasonally marine biologists of oceanBASIS cultivate young algae
sporophytes on seeding ropes in the laboratory. After about
8 weeks they are launched in the openwater farm, which is organic
certified according to European organic standards. The
seedlings grow about half a year in fresh seawater until they become
harvested in early summer.

After harvesting the fresh algae are fermented to an alcoholic
extract rich in active marine ingredients such as minerals, iodine,
special algae sugars and polyphenols.

== Cosmetic ==
[[Image: Oceanwell products.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 1: Oceanwell organic cosmetics products]]
Based on this unique extract and natural seawater oceanBASIS
developed the NaTrue certified organic cosmetic brand “Oceanwell”
with 10 products for face and body skin care. Nationally
Oceanwell is distributed via an online shop, perfumeries, natural
cosmetics shops, spas and hotels. Export has started recently
first to China, now to the USA.
Clinical and Dermatest studies revealed that Oceanwell has a
beneficial skin-compatible effect. Thus it is suitable especially
for dry and sensitive skin. Moreover, Oceanwell moisturizes, regenerates,
energizes and protects the skin in a natural way.
After 7 years of research oceanBASIS invented a new cosmetic
ingredient, oceanic collagen, extracted from jellyfish. Studies
revealed unique high waterbinding capacity. The organically certified
cosmetic ProAge Line “OceanCollagen” was developed
specially for demanding skin. Dermatest studies showed that
wrinkles depth is reduced significantly (–25 %) by the OceanCollagen
face cream.

'''Source:''' Blue Biotechnology in the Baltic Sea Region:
New Strategies and Future Perspectives
[http://www.submariner-project.eu]

[[category:Marine Biotechnology]]

Mimicking whale tubercles in turbines

2013-04-19T09:53:08Z

Angelm:

Wave and tidal apparatuses have emerged in many forms in their quest to harness the renewable, fairly predictable energy of the ocean’s rhythms. The bumps, or tubercles, found on humpback whales flippers create vortices, helping the large cetaceans maintain lift as they cut through the sea <ref name="sma">http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/intelligent-energy/tidal-turbine-mimics-whale-power/3974</ref>.

Adding a series of ridges (tubercles) to the edges of a wind turbine blade could increase annual electrical production for wind farms by 20%, as tubercles allow turbines to overcome the three major limitations of wind power:
::* poor reliability when winds fall or fail
::* noise - especially tip chatter caused by tip stalling
::* poor performance in unsteady or turbulent air

Underwater turbines would eventually follow this example of marine biomimicry as well. Comparing bumpy vs. smooth blades in a 120-foot water tank at the U.S. naval academy, the researchers found the humpback-inspired blades won out. More research is needed, but the bumpy blades didn’t significantly hurt the performance of the turbine during stronger tides either. One thing the design has going for it, they say, is its simplicity. In the rough-and-tumble marine environments, mechanical complexity disfavors durability
<ref name="sma">http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/intelligent-energy/tidal-turbine-mimics-whale-power/3974</ref>.

== Whale fins fans ==
[[Image: Tubercle fan.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Figure 1: Industrial fan with humpback-inspired blades]]
Tubercle-like structures, designed by WhalePower, Toronto, Canada <ref name="wha">http://www.whalepower.com/</ref> on turbine blades would let them work at steeper angles without stalling or creating too much drag, according to the firm
In low wind, blades with steeper angles could theoretically generate more power. Wind-tunnel tests show that, in some cases, adding tubercle-like bumps to model fins pushed back the stall angle by as much as 40% <ref name="win">http://www.windpowerengineering.com/design/mechanical/blades/rotor-blade-ridges-promise-more-turbine-power/</ref>.

WhalePower's first Tubercle Technology product to come to the market is an industrial fan. WhalePower has licensed an Ontario company called Envira-North System's Ltd. to manufacture and distribute the first generation of fully optimized HVLS (high volume low speed) fans worldwide <ref name="whp">http://www.whalepower.com/drupal/?q=node/2</ref>.
 
 

== References ==
<references/>

[[category:Marine Biotechnology]]

Application of GFP in neuroscience

2013-04-19T08:55:47Z

Angelm:

The luminescent properties of the jellyfish ''Aequorea victoria'' led to the characterisation of the green fluorescent protein (GFP). Martin Chalfie, Osamu Shimomura, and Roger Y. Tsien were awarded the 2008 Nobel Prize in chemistry on 10 October 2008 for their discovery and development of the green fluorescent protein. The GFP and the luciferase enzyme from ''Vibrio fischeri'' have widespread uses in molecular biology as a reporter protein. By using DNA technology, researchers can now connect GFP to other interesting, but otherwise invisible, proteins. This glowing marker allows them to watch the movements, positions and interactions of the tagged proteins <ref name="mbp">http://www.marineboard.eu/images/publications/Marine%20Biotechnology-37.pdf</ref>.

== "Brainbow" ==
[[Image: Brainbow.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Figure 1: Confocal image of cerebreal cortex using the fluorescent protein tool]]
For instance, Jeff Lichtman and Joshua Sanes, researchers at the Harvard Brain Center, have created transgenic mice with fluorescent multicolored neurons. The photographs of the mouse brains appeared in the November 1, 2007 issue of Nature. The mice created by a genetic strategy termed "brainbow" will have a great effect on neuroscience. Using a brainbow of colors, researchers will now be able to map the neural circuits of the brain. The individually colored neurons will help define the complex tangle of neurons that comprise the brain and nervous system. By creating a wiring diagram of the brain, researchers hope to help identify the defective wiring found in neurodegenerative diseases such as Altzheimer's and Parkinson's disease <ref name="rat">http://www.conncoll.edu/ccacad/zimmer/GFP-ww/cooluses0.html</ref>.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

== References ==
<references/>

[[category:Marine Biotechnology]]

Marine biotechnology landscape beyond Europe

2013-04-18T14:28:17Z

Angelm:

*[[Africa]]
*[[Asia]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in China|China]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in India|India]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Indian Ocean islands|Indian Ocean islands]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Indonesia|Indonesia]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Japan|Japan]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Korea|Korea]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Malaysia|Malaysia]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in other South-East Asia countries|Other South-East Asia countries]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Taiwan|Taiwan]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Vietnam|Vietnam]]
*[[Australia Pacific]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Australia|Australia]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in New Zealand|New Zealand]]
*[[America]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Argentina|Argentina]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Brasil|Brasil]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Canada|Canada]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Chile|Chile]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Costa Rica|Costa Rica]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Mexico|Mexico]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in USA|USA]]
*[[Marine Biotechnology international summaries|International summaries]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology international summary|International summary]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology international regional infrastructures summary|International regional infrastructures summary]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology Australia-Pacific summary|Australia-Pacific summary]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology Central and South America summary|Central and South America summary]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology Middle East summary|Middle East summary]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology North America summary|North America summary]]

[[category:Marine Biotechnology]]

Marine biotechnology landscape in Europe

2013-04-18T14:27:09Z

Angelm:

*[[Marine Biotechnology at Pan-European level|Pan-European]]
*[[Marine Biotechnology in European sea basins|European sea basins]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Atlantic, Celtic Sea, Bay of Biscay and the Iberian Coast|Atlantic, Celtic Sea, Bay of Biscay and the Iberian Coast]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Baltic Sea basin|Baltic Sea]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Black Sea basin|Black Sea]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Mediterranean Sea basin|Mediterranean Sea]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in North Sea basin|North Sea]]
*[[Marine Biotechnology in European countries|European countries]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Austria|Austria]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Belgium|Belgium]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Bulgaria|Bulgaria]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Croatia|Croatia]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Denmark|Denmark]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Estonia|Estonia]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Finland|Finland]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in France|France]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Germany|Germany]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Greece|Greece]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Iceland|Iceland]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Ireland|Ireland]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Italy|Italy]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Latvia|Latvia]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Lithuania|Lithuania]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Malta|Malta]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in The Netherlands|The Netherlands]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Norway|Norway]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Poland|Poland]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Portugal|Portugal]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Romania|Romania]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Slovenia|Slovenia]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Spain|Spain]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Switzerland|Switzerland]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Sweden|Sweden]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Turkey|Turkey]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]
** [[Marine Biotechnology in Ukraine|Ukraine]]

[[category:Marine Biotechnology]]

Marine Biotechnology in Mediterranean Sea basin

2013-04-18T13:48:28Z

Angelm: Created page with "Go back to: Home > Strategies, Policies and Programmes > European sea basins {|Width = "10..."

Go back to: [[Portal:Marine Biotechnology|Home]] > [[Strategies, Policies and Programmes]] > [[Marine Biotechnology in European sea basins|European sea basins]]

{|Width = "100%"
|valign="top" style="padding:10px 0px 0px 0px; Width:60%"| __TOC__
| style="padding:10px 0px 0px 0px"|[[Image:Mediterranean.jpg|caption|right|300px]]
|}
 

== Situation ==

The Mediterranean Sea is a semi-enclosed basin with high temperature and salinity, and decreasing freshwater due to dams and river diversions. The Mediterranean Sea has unique characteristics as it communicates and is being affected by three seas and oceans with very diverse features: the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Black Sea to the north-east and the Red Sea through the Suez Canal to the southeast. It is characterized by a combination of coastal and open sea dynamics and has been often referred to as a “miniature ocean” and a “physical laboratory” for marine environmental research.

The Mediterranean basin is ca. 3,680 km long with an average width of 700 km and is divided into the Western and Eastern basins, which are separated by the straits of Sicily. The Western basin (mean depth, ca. 1,600 m) consists of two deep basins: the Algero Provençal basin and the Tyrrhenian Sea. The Eastern Mediterranean includes the Ionian, Adriatic and Aegean Seas, and the Levantine basin.

The principal traits of this semi-enclosed ‘miniature ocean’ can be summarized as:
::* limited freshwater inputs;
::* microtidal regime;
::* high oxygen concentrations;
::* high deep-sea temperature (always above 12.8°C); and
::* oligotrophic conditions with low nutrient concentrations which typically decrease eastward.

Given its unique characteristics, changes in the world ocean affect the Mediterranean sooner than the world ocean itself. While the Mediterranean is very diverse in habitats and rich in biodiversity, it is a sensitive area with a highly stressed ecosystem which requires particular attention to protect the unique marine genetic resources.

Being a shared sea between European, North African and Middle East countries, the Mediterranean is an area of strong cultural, societal and economic gradients. Nevertheless, there is a strong Mediterranean heritage that acts as catalyst and transforms these gradients into opportunities rather than barriers. This is also the case for Marine Sciences which, despite important differences of capacities between countries, has always played an integrating role and promoted the regional cooperation in the Mediterranean Sea. Important stakeholders in this process are the regional commissions and conventions and the national research performing organizations (RPO) that have in some cases organized regional associations namely: CIESM (the intergovernmental science commission that works through committees, organizes workshops and conferences and publishes reports), UNEP/MAP (that supports the implementation of the Barcelona Convention for Environmental Protection), RAC/SPA (the Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected Areas established by the Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention and its Protocols in order to assist Mediterranean countries in implementing the Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean), MedGOOS (the regional alliance of the IOC GOOS program for ocean observations) and MOON (the Mediterranean component of EuroGOOS for the development of operational oceanography).

== Overarching regional science strategies, plans and policies==

There is currently no overarching regional science strategy or plan specifically focusing on marine biotechnology research and development. General marine science issues are considered by organisations such as CIESM and projects such as the SEAS-ERA Project.

== Research priorities==

The recently published Marine Board position paper "Marine Biotechnology: A New Vision and Strategy for Europe" sets out a science and policy agenda for the next decade in this field and highlights pharmaceuticals as one of the main priorities for Securing human health and wellbeing in Europe. According to this report the other priorities in Europe in the field of marine biotechnology are the following: Sustainable supply of high quality and healthy food, Sustainable alternative sources of energy, and Securing environmental health...

For the SEAS‐ERA Mediterranean SRA the priorities should be similar but due to some of the unique features of the Mediterranean (the Mediterranean is considered one of the 25 hot spots for global marine biodiversity with between 4% and 18% of the world marine species), some fields of research may have greater potential development compared to others. This has been taken into consideration in setting up the following priorities and also the research interests of the wider Mediterranean science community.

'''Bioprospecting for Marine Drugs and Fine Chemicals'''

Great biodiversity implies great chemical diversity. The Mediterranean with its high biodiversity in terms of species and habitats represents a huge potential source of new drugs, innovative treatments and diagnostic tools for human health and well‐being (including pharmaceuticals, neutraceuticals and dietary integrators). Bioprospecting for Marine Drugs and Fine Chemicals should therefore be considered one of the major priorities for Marine Biotechnology within the Seas‐ERA Net Mediterranean agenda with a focus on basic research (taxonomy, systematics, physiology, molecular genetics and chemical ecology) of marine species to increase chances of success in finding novel biologically active compounds as pharmaceuticals and health care products (including cosmetics) and industrial products and processes. In the Mediterranean Sea, the majority of bioactive (antibacterial, antiviral, cytotoxic or antifouling) molecules until now have been isolated from benthic species: algae and, particularly, animals such as sponges, bryozoans, echinoderms, ascidians and mollusks. For example, aplidine, a compound derived from the Mediterranean ascidian Aplidium albicans has been shown to be a powerful anticancer agent and is currently in clinical trials for a variety of cancers. But there is also great potential of finding new compounds from other marine sources such as microalgae and microbes that have been relatively unexplored until now. In addition to applications concerning human health, there is also great interest in discovering natural additives in foods, vitamins, oils, antioxidants and cofactors which enhance general well‐being. Current high value chemical markets from marine organisms are focused on a limited number of high value chemicals such as carotenoids due to their high market value were projected to reach 77,000 million Euro in 2010. Finally, there is interest in discovering new enzymes, biopolymers and biomaterials for industrial applications.

'''Technologies to Increase Sustainability of Aquaculture Production'''

The growing demand for marine food will need to be increasingly delivered through intensive aquaculture especially in the Mediterranean where sea food is part of the traditional diet of most countries and is at the basis of what has become known world‐wide as the “Mediterranean diet”. Commercial aquaculture continues to face challenges in understanding and controlling reproduction, early life‐stage development, growth, nutrition, disease and animal health management and environmental interactions and sustainability. Hence, the Seas‐ERA Net Mediterranean agenda should promote technologies to increase sustainability of aquaculture production, including alternative preventive and therapeutic measures to enhance environmental welfare, sustainable production technologies for feed supply, and zero‐waste recirculation systems.

'''Biofuels from Micro‐ and Macroalgae'''

There are many examples of the production of bio‐energy from marine organisms, but Production of Biofuels from Micro‐ and Macroalgae perhaps represents one of the most promising options to harvest this huge energy potential. Microalgae (e.g. Chlorella) are renewable and there is no damage to the environment. Biomass can be converted by bacteria and microalgae to fuels such as methane and biodiesel. Unfortunately biomass is not economically competitive with current sources of energy. But biotechnology may make biomass more viable by enhancing photosynthesis to produce more of a fuel, or modifying biomass to favour fuel production. Algae genome sequencing can provide new insights and major breakthroughs in this field helping understand the molecular and physiological mechanisms and steps involve in the production of biofuel which are crucial to optimise its production

== Strategic documents==

::* Seas-ERA Mediterranean Strategic Research Agenda <ref name="sea">http://www.seas-era.eu/np4/19.html</ref>.
::* Briand F (Ed.) (2011). New Partnerships for Blue Biotechnology Development: innovative solutions from the sea. Proceedings of the CIESM International Workshop, Monaco, 11-12 Nov 2010 <ref name="cie">http://www.ciesm.org/WK_BIOTECH_REPORT_2010.pdf</ref>.

== Infrastructures and coordination and support capacities / initiatives==

The Mediterranean Science Commission (CIESM) <ref name="esm">http://www.ciesm.org</ref> represents the most important regional coordination and support capacity/initiative in the Mediterranean in relation to marine biotechnology research and development. CIESM was founded in 1908 and formally constituted in 1919, under the leadership of Prince Albert I of Monaco, to federate marine research and explorations across the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Monaco, Spain, Tunisia and Turkey were founder members while this number grew steadily to reach 22 members in 2013 <ref name="ins">http://www.ciesm.org/online/institutes/IndexInstituts.htm</ref>. Aspects of marine biotechnology have been covered by CIESM in its workshops since 1997, most recently looking at Mediterranean marine extremophiles <ref name="mon">http://www.ciesm.org/online/monographs/index.htm</ref>. CIESM produces authoritative, independent reports on the status and trends of their marine systems. These widely-read Monographs (now counting 43) cover a diversity of issues, from the control of coastal erosion to novel contaminants, or from the role of cetaceans to the function of marine viruses. Of CIESM’s six committees, C4 works on marine microbiology and biotechnology. There are currently no specific research programmes in marine biotechnology but a recent report examined the role of blue biotechnology in answering a number of specific challenges in the Mediterranean marine ecosystem <ref name="bio">http://www.ciesm.org/WK_BIOTECH_REPORT_2010.pdf</ref>. Subjects included integration of marine biotechnology and nanotechnology for control of ship ballast water bio-pollution; marine biomolecules for chemistry, health, cosmetics, flavours and fragrances and vaccine adjuvants and stabilisers; new marine biomaterials and polymers.

== Major Initiatives==

CIESM operates a ‘Blog’ forum covering important Marine Biotech topics such as Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) of Marine Genetic Resources (MGR) and geography of marine active biomolecules <ref name="for">http://www.ciesm.org/forums/</ref>.

== Major observations, trends and future prospects==

The Mediterranean Science Committee (CIESM) is currently (in 2013) undertaking an assessment of the marine biotechnology potential of the region and of the different Mediterranean coastal states.

== References ==
<references/>

== Disclaimer ==

{{Marinebiotechdisclaimer1}}

[[category:Marine Biotechnology]]

Case studies eutrophication

2013-04-17T07:22:20Z

Carolienk: /* Economic impacts of eutrophication (Case study: Shellfish flavour) */

==Ecological impacts of eutrophication (Case study: Eutrophication and dead zones)==
[[Image:Balsea.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Algae blooms have created the world's largest dead zone in the Baltic Sea (Photo credit: Jeff Schmaltz, NASA)]]
====Introduction====
Dead zones are very low oxygen areas ([[hypoxia|hypoxic]]) in the ocean where marine life including fish, crabs and clams cannot survive. In the 1970s oceanographers began noting increased instances of dead zones. A 2008 study counted 405 dead zones worldwide<ref>Diaz R. J, Rosenberg R. (2008): Spreading dead zones and consequences for marine ecosystems. Science 321, 629.</ref>. Hypoxia is a natural phenomenon that occurs periodically in coastal waters around the world. During the last 50 years however, increases in key pollutants from human activities on land have thrown many coastal ecosystems out of balance, resulting in expanded dead zone regions.

====Causes and consequences====
Aquatic and marine dead zones can be caused by an increase in nutrients (mainly nitrates and phosphates) in the water known as [[eutrophication]]. Major nutrient sources come from human activities such as the use of fertilizers in agriculture and the burning of fossil fuels. These nutrients lead to a rapid increase of the density of certain types of [[phytoplankton]] resulting in [[algal blooms]]. The organic matter produced by these phytoplankton species at the surface of the ocean sinks to the bottom (the benthic zone) where bacteria break it down. The bacteria use oxygen and give off carbon dioxide during this breakdown. Fish and mobile invertebrates can migrate out of hypoxic areas. Plants and animals that are slow moving or attached to the bottom (sea grass, worms and clams) cannot escape from the dangers of hypoxic waters and will die.
The largest dead zone worldwide is the Baltic Sea[http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Sea]. Overfishing of Baltic cod has greatly intensified the problem. Cod eat sprats, a small, herring-like species that eat microscopic zooplankton that in turn eat the algae. So, fewer cods and an explosion of zooplankton-eating sprats means more algae and less oxygen- a vicious cycle develops <ref>Westman, 2010; cited in Owen 2010. World's Largest Dead Zone Suffocating Sea, National Geographic News.</ref>.

==== Solutions====
The main goal in reducing dead zones is to keep fertilizers on the land and out of coastal waters.
The Black Sea dead zone largely disappeared between 1991 and 2001 after fertilizers became too costly to use following the collapse of the Sovjet Union and the demise of eastern European economies. Nutrients loads entering the sea where therefore considerably reduced. Fishing has again become a major economic activity in the region.

However, our ocean ecosystems are fragile and the combined threats of climate change, overexploitation, pollution and habitat loss,all mostly caused by human activity, are undermining the sustainability. Expanded dead zones caused by global warming will remain for thousands of years and have harmful long-term effects on ocean ecosystems.

==Human health impacts of eutrophication (Case study: Humans at the top of the food web)==
[[Image:Shellfish_mussels.jpg|thumb|left|190px|Mussels can be contaminated with algal toxins causing illness and economic loss (Photo credit: Lisa Williams)]]
The consumption of shellfish (e.g. mussels, clams) is one of the most common ways for algal toxins to impact human health. Marketable shellfish are generally considered to be safe, but in spite of these precautions, there are known illnesses.
One dramatic incident occurred in 1990 when six fishermen almost died from eating mussels during a fishing trip on Georges Bank, a productive offshore finfish and shellfish area 100 miles east of Cape Cod, MA. After a hard day of fishing, the fishermen settled down in the ship's galley to eat a pot of steamed mussels that they had inadvertently caught in their nets. The Captain, who had joined the meal later than the rest of the crew, witnessed his fellow fishermen become incapacitated due to the paralytic effects of the toxin. He himself also became ill, but was capable of sending an urgent radio message to the US Coast Guard. The Coast Guard airlifted the men to the nearest hospital located on Nantucket Island, MA where they were treated using respiratory therapy to sustain their breathing and prevent them from dying due to paralysis of the lungs. Fortunately, all the men recovered and were back fishing within a few weeks. The event, presumably caused by a massive Alexandrium <ref>WoRMS (2012). Alexandrium Halim, 1960 emend. Balech, 1989. In: Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. (2012). AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=109470</ref> bloom transported offshore from areas along the northeast coast, closed the surf clam industry on Georges Bank to further harvest.

==Economic impacts of eutrophication (Case study: Shellfish flavour)==
Some algae and diatoms impart off-flavours or bitter taints to shellfish, rendering them unpalatable and unmarketable. In 1987 in Port Phillip Bay, Melbourne, Australia, a bloom of the diatom Rhizosolenia chunii <ref>Kraberg, A. (2011). Rhizosolenia chunii Karsten, 1905. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=341502</ref> <ref>Parry, G.D., Langdon, J.S. & Huisman, J.M. (1989). Toxic effects of a bloom of the diatom Rhizosolenia chunii on shellfish in Port Phillip Bay, southeastern Australia. Marine Biology, Berlin 102: 25-41.</ref>occurred and 3 species of shellfish within the bay, mussels, oysters and scallops, developed a powerful bitter taint. The taint was so persistent and unpleasant that the mussels from the bay were unmarketable for 7 months, causing a revenue loss of approximately $1 million.
 

==Recreational and aesthetic impacts of eutrophication (Case study: Foam on the beach)==
[[Image:Foambeachphaeo.png|right|thumb|200px|Phaeocystis bloom (Photo credit: Nausicaa, Adrien Delater-Julien Legrand)]]
Some algae, particularly of the taxa “Phaeocystis”<ref>Guiry, M.D. (2011). Phaeocystis. In: Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. (2011). AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=115088</ref>, produce a mucus, which when disturbed produce a foam. These algae are more prone to develop when there is little competition. It seems that in areas such as the south-east coast of the North sea, where all the silica has been captured by diatoms in estuarine regions, the residual nitrogen is used by Phaeocystis to bloom. They produce large amount of mucus which, if the weather is windy, will in turn be transformed into large amounts of foam covering extensive areas of beach and lake shores. Besides the impact on the landscape and the nuisance it represents for tourists, this foam is suspected of disturbing flat fish larvae development. This phenomenon is frequently observed at the Belgian and Dutch coasts, and appears from time to time in Germany.

==References==
<references/>

{{author
|AuthorID=26102
|AuthorFullName= Knockaert, Carolien
|AuthorName=Carolienk}}

Threats to Coral Reefs: the Effects of Chemical Pollution

2013-04-16T14:17:09Z

Jweverts: /* Oil, Oil Dispersants and Produced Formation Water */

{{featured}}

Around the world, [[coral reefs]] are severely threatened by human activities. These include the effects of [[climate change]], coastal development, marine-based and inland [[pollution]], and overexploitation. Degradation frequently occurs through the interaction of a combination of human caused factors and periodic natural disturbances, such as disease, temperature extremes, pest outbreaks, tropical cyclones. The impact of multiple stressors can have a multiplicative effect on reef ecosystems, and human-damaged reefs may be more [[Resilience_and_resistance|vulnerable to some types of natural disturbances]] and take longer to recover <ref name="one">Brown, B. (1997). Disturbances to Reefs in Recent Times. New York: Chapman and Hall.</ref><ref name="two">Negri , A., & Hoogenboom, M. (2011). Water Contamination Reduces the Tolerance of Coral Larvae to Thermal Stress. PLoS ONE 6(5):e19703; doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0019703.</ref>. An estimated 20% of the global corals are threatened by exposure to [[Types_of_pollutants|toxic substances]]. The main chemical threats are pollution by [[Oil slicks|oil]] and oil dispersants, industrial chemicals from discharges, [[pesticide|pesticides]] from run-off, [[Antifouling agent|antifouling compounds]], and chemical fishing practices <ref name="three">[http://www.vliz.be/imis/imis.php?module=ref&refid=71491 Spalding, M., Green, E., & Ravilious, C. (2001). World Atlas of Coral Reefs. UNEP-WCMC.]</ref>.

==Toxicity Tests and Monitoring Parameters==
Visual effects of exposure to high levels of toxicants are bare skeletons, loose tissue or heavy mucous hanging from the skeleton, localized alteration of growth form, including excessive sclerite production to form granuloma-like structures, and [[coral bleaching|bleaching]]. Bleaching is caused by loss of zooxanthellae from the coral tissues, a well-recognised sub-lethal stress response. Jones (1997) <ref name="four">[http://www.int-res.com/articles/meps/149/m149p163.pdf Jones, R. (1997). Zooxanthellae loss as a bioassay for assessing stress in corals. Mar Ecol-Prog Ser, 149 163-171.]</ref> used zooxanthellae loss in a bioassay for the assessment of chemical induced bleaching. An enhanced release of zooxanthellae by exposure to [[copper]] has been found at concentrations of ≥ 10 µgl-1. To detect the early stages of bleaching, photoinhibition and photosynthetic electron transport in the zooxanthellae are measured using pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) chlorophyll fluorescence techniques. The measurements can be made in situ and in real time with submersible PAM fluorimeters <ref name="five">[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X98901606 Jones, R., Kildea, T., & Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (1999). PAM chlorophyll fluorometry: a new in situ technique for stress assessment in scleractinian corals, used to examine the effects of cyanide from cyanide fishing. Mar Pollut Bull, 864-874.]</ref>.

There are, as yet, no standardized ecotoxicological tests for corals. A good candidate is the ‘nubbins’-test, where explants of coral branch tips are used for toxicity testing in the laboratory <ref name="six">[http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00334350 Davies, P. S. (1995). Coral nubbins and explants for reef assessment and laboratory ecotoxicology. Coral Reefs, 114 (4) 267-269.]</ref>. Coral nubbins are minute coral fragments in the size of one to several polyps, harvested from a single colony are genetically identical to each other. Several dozens of nubbins can be obtained from a single small branch <ref name="seven">Shafir, S., Van Rijn, J., & Rinkevich, B. (2003). The use of coral nubbins in coral reef ecotoxicology testing. Biomol Eng. 20(4-6) 401-406.</ref>. Important effect parameters are survival, [[respiration]], [[photosynthesis]], and growth rate. Another ecologically relevant parameter is larval motility. In a sublethal toxicity test the effect of chemicals on the motility i.e. the ability to move spontaneously of coral larvae is measured <ref name="eight">[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15346777 Reichelt-Brushett , A., & Harrison , P. (2004). Development of a sublethal test to determine the effects of copper and lead on scleractinian coral larvae. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol., 47(1), 40-55.]</ref>. The authors found for instance a 24 h EC50 for motility in [http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=207467 ''Goniastrea aspera''] larvae for copper of 16 µgl-1.

In response to the regional onslaught on corals, the US [http://www.noaa.gov/ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)] supported in 2006 the development Cellular Diagnosis System for the monitoring of coral health. The system includes a set of [[Common biomarkers for the assessment of marine pollution|molecular biomarkers]] used to provide the evidence to target management actions on coral stressors <ref name="nine">[http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/CREWS/mlrf_3.pdf Downs, C., Fauth, J., Robison, C., Curry, R., Lanzendorf, B., Halas, J., et al. (2005). Cellular diagnostics and coral health: Declining coral health. Mar Pollut Bull 51, 558–569.]</ref><ref name="ten">[http://www.biomedexperts.com/Abstract.bme/22215560/The_use_of_cellular_diagnostics_for_identifying_sub-lethal_stress_in_reef_corals Downs, C., Holbrook, J., Knutson, S., Mendiola, W., Ostrander, G., Rongo, T., et al. (2012). The use of cellular diagnostics for identifying sub-lethal stress in reef corals. Ecotoxicology , 21(3), 768-82.]</ref><ref name="eleven">Downs, C., Woodley, C., Fauth, J., Knutson, S., Burtscher, M., May, L., et al. (2011). A survey of environmental pollutants and cellular-stress biomarkers of Porites astreoides at six sites in St. John, US Virgin Islands. Ecotoxicology, 20, 1914-1931</ref>. Of the eight parameters in the system, those related to xenobiotics are cytochrome P450-2 class [CYP 2] which detoxifies carcinogens and drugs, cytochrome P450-6 class [CYP 6] detoxifying pesticides, cnidarian glutathione-S-transferase [GST] detoxifying electrophilic compounds, multi-xenobiotic resistance protein [MXR] processing xenobiotics to exit the cell, and Hsp 60 and Ubiquitin, indicative of protein denaturation and degradation. When applied in Florida as part of an integrated program including ecosystem and organismal parameters (cover, species composition, mortality, lesion regeneration) as well as challenge experiments, the method provided evidence that identified land-based sources of pollution negatively affected coral reef communities <ref name="twelfe">[http://www.dep.state.fl.us/coastal/programs/coral/reports/LBSP/LBSP_05_Biomarker Fauth, J., Dustan, P., Pante, E., Banks, K., Vargas-Angel, B., & Downs, C. (2008). Using cellular diagnostics to link land-based sources of pollution with coral reef degradation in South Florida. National Coral Reef Institute, NOVA Southeastern University Oceanographic Center,. Dania Beach, FL 33004, USA.]</ref>.

 


==Oil, Oil Dispersants and Produced Formation Water==
Coral reefs can be seriously affected by leaking fuels<ref name="thirteen">Haapkylä J., Ramade F. & Salvat, B. (2007) Oil pollution on coral reefs: a review of the state of knowledge and management needs. Vie et Milieu - Life and Environment 57 (1/2) 91-107</ref>. Spills may not affect corals directly if the oil stays near the surface of the water, as much of it evaporates within days. However, when corals are spawning, the eggs and sperm can be damaged as they float near the surface before they fertilize and settle <ref name="thirteen">CORIS. (n.d.). Hazards to Coral Reefs. Retrieved December 2012, from Coral Reef Information System: http://coris.noaa.gov/about/hazards/</ref>. Also, in shallow waters the water-accommodated fraction (WAF) may disrupt reproduction <ref name="fourteen">[http://www.vliz.be/imis/imis.php?module=ref&refid=223234 Burke, L.; Reytar, K.; Spalding, M.; Perry, A. (2011). Reefs at risk revisited. World Resources Institute: Washington, DC. ISBN 978-1-56973-762-0. 115 pp.]</ref>. However, dispersed oil in combination with the dispersing detergents is significantly more toxic than the WAF of crude oil alone <ref name="fifteen">[http://dare.uva.nl/document/62020 Epstein, N., Bak, R., & Rinkevich, B. (2000). Toxicity of Third Generation Dispersants and Dispersed Egyptian Crude Oil on Red Sea Coral Larvae. Mar Pollut Bull 40(6), 497-503. Vol. 40(6), 497-503.]</ref><ref name="sixteen">Shafir, S., Van Rijn, J., & Rinkevich, B. (2007). Short and Long Term Toxicity of Crude Oil and Oil Dispersants to Two Representative Coral Species. Environ. Sci. Technol. , 41, 5571-5574.</ref><ref name="seventeen">Lane, A., & Harrison, P. (2000). Effects of oil contaminants on survivorship of larvae of the scleractinian reef corals Acropora tenuis, Goniastrea aspera and Platygyra sinensis from the Great Barrier Reef. In Proceedings 9th International Coral Reef Symposium. Bali, Indonesia.</ref>. Dispersants and WAFs plus dispersants cause larval morphology deformations, loss of normal swimming behaviour and rapid tissue degeneration.

The Deepwater Horizon [[Oil slicks|oil spill]] in the Gulf of Mexico from April to August 2010 is considered the largest accidental [[Overview_of_oil_spills_events_from_1970_to_2000|marine oil spill]] in the history of the petroleum industry. Virtually all exposed components of the [[Marine_habitats_and_ecosystems|marine and coastal ecosystems]] of the bay were damaged. In corals, the most conspicuous visual effects were tissue loss, sclerite enlargement, and excess mucous production. White et al. (2012) <ref name="eighteen">White, H., Pen-Yuan, H., Cho, W., Shank , T., Cordes, E., Quattrini, A., et al. (2012, 03 23). Impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill on a deep-water coral community in the Gulf of Mexico. Retrieved from PNAS Online: http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2012/03/23/1118029109.full.pdf</ref> investigated 11 sites hosting deep-water coral communities 3 to 4 months after the well was covered. The sites were positioned in the path of a 100-m-thick deep plume of a mixture of water and petroleum hydrocarbons from the leaking Macondo well. The proportion of coral exhibiting damage varied from 30% of the corals with < 30% damage to 23 % with > 90% damage. The impact was observed at a depth of 1,370m, 11 km from the site of the blowout. Again, oil in combination with the dispersant, in this case Corexit®, proved markedly more toxic than the WAF alone <ref name="nineteen">Goodbody-Gringley, G., Wetzel , D., Gillon, D., Pulster, E., & Miller, A. (2013). Toxicity of Deepwater Horizon Source Oil and the Chemical Dispersant, Corexit® 9500, to Coral Larvae. PLoS ONE, 8(1), e45574. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045574</ref>.

A study into the effects of a major oil spill in the Bahia Las Minas region in the Caribbean <ref name="twenty">[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0025326X9390068U Guzmán, H., & Holst, I. (1993). Effects of chronic oil-sediment pollution on the reproduction of the Caribbean reef coral Siderastrea siderea. Mar Pollut Bull 26(5), 276–282.]</ref> demonstrated that three years after the spill gonad size during spawning was still reduced, and five years following the spill, the corals still showed high levels of injury measured as bleaching and/or algal covering, and reduced growth.

Produced Formation Water (PFW) is an effluent of the offshore oil and gas industry. PFWs may be toxic to marine invertebrates <ref name="twentyone">Manfra, L., Maggi, C., Bianchi, J., Mannozzi, M., Faraponova, O., Onorati, F., et al. (2010). Toxicity evaluation of produced formation waters after filtration treatment. Natural Science, 2(1), 33-40. doi:10.4236/ns.2010.21005.</ref>, and may cause [[coral bleaching|bleaching]] through a reduction in photochemical efficiency of the dinoflagellate algae <ref name="twentytwo">[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17220086 Downs , C., Richmond, R., Rougée, L., Mendiola, W., & Ostrander, G. (2006). Cellular physiological effects of the MV Kyowa violet fuel-oil spill on the hard coral, Porites lobata. Environ Toxicol Chem., 25(12), 3171-3180.]</ref>. When the proper cleaning procedures are being applied the bleaching is in general limited in space and time <ref name="twentythree">Jones , R., & Heyward , A. (2003). The effects of Produced Formation Water (PFW) on coral and isolated symbiotic dinoflagellates of coral. Mar Freshwater Res, 54(2), 153 – 162.</ref>.

 


==Chemical Fishing==
Coral reefs are among the richest and most diverse fishing grounds in the oceans. The greatest driver of increased pressure on reefs since 1998 has been an 80% increase in the threat from overfishing and destructive fishing, most significantly in the Pacific and Indian Ocean <ref name="fourteen"/>. Coral fish are targeted for food, sport, and for live fish for restaurants and for aquarium fish. Cyanide fishing, which involves spraying or dumping [[Free_cyanide|cyanide]] onto reefs to stun and capture (live) fish, kills coral polyps and degrades the reef habitat <ref name="twentyfive">Waddell, J., & Clarke , A. (2008). The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States and Pacific Freely Associated States: 2008. Silver Spring MD, USA: NOAA/NCCOS Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment’s Biogeography Team.</ref>. More than 40 countries are affected by cyanide fishing activities <ref name="twentysix">[http://www.icriforum.org/about-coral-reefs/status-and-threat-coral-reefs Status of and Threat to Coral Reefs. (2013). Retrieved April 14, 2013, from International Coral Reef Initiative. An informal partnership to preserve coral reefs around the world.]</ref><ref name="twentyseven">Bruckner, A. (2013). Cyanide Fishing makes a Comeback. Retrieved April 14, 2013, from fishchannel.com: http://www.fishchannel.com/fish-magazines/freshwater-and-marine-aquarium/august-2008/cyanide-aquarium-fish.aspx</ref>, and it is now practised in countries from East Africa to the central Pacific. Exposure of corals to cyanide can result in a reduction or cessation of respiration <ref name="four"/>, a reduction in [[Photoautotrophic|phototrophic]] potential and a decrease in growth rates and fecundity. The most obvious response is bleaching. Re-establishment of the symbiosis may take from six months to one year or more.

==Pesticides==

Virtually all rural run-off water is polluted by [[pesticide|pesticides]]. Insecticides, herbicides and fungicides have been shown to affect corals at very low concentrations. For example, it has been found that the fungicide MEMC affects all life-history stages of corals. It inhibits fertilisation and metamorphosis, polyps become withdrawn and photosynthetic efficiency is reduced at 1.0 µg l–1. At 10 µg l–1, branches are bleached and host tissue dies <ref name="twentynine">[http://www.int-res.com/articles/meps_oa/m330p127.pdf Markey, K., Baird, A., Humphrey, C., & Negri, A. (2007). Insecticides and a fungicide affect multiple coral life stages. Mar Ecol Prog Ser (330), 127–137.]</ref>. Herbicides and fertilisers used in sugarcane cultivation were identified as the most likely major source of the herbicide residues and nutrients found in corals <ref name"thirty">[http://www.rla.net.au/science/herbicides%20GBR.pdf Stephen, E., Brodie , J., Bainbridge, Z., Rohde, K., Davis , A., Masters , B., et al. (2009). Herbicides: A new threat to the Great Barrier Reef. Environ Pollut, 1-15.]</ref>. Of these, [[diuron]] and the [[Methylmercury|organomercurials]], banned in many [http://www.oecd.org/ OECD] countries, represent a serious threat to coral health.

PAM chlorophyll fluorescence measurement demonstrated a reduction in photosynthetic efficiency in [http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=206953 ''Pocillopora damicornis''] recruits after a 2 h exposure to 1 μg l−1 diuron. The dark-adapted quantum yields also declined, indicating chronic photoinhibition and damage to photosystem II <ref name="thirtyone">[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2004.10.053 Negri, A., Vollhardt, C., Humphrey, C., Heyward, A., Jones, R., Eaglesham, G., et al. (2005). Effects of the herbicide diuron on the early life history stages of coral. Mar Pollut Bull 51(1-4), 370–383]</ref>. Various corals are severely bleached at 10 μg l–1 diuron, from which some may show partial or full colony recovery. Polyp fecundity was reduced by 88% in one tested species, and two species proved unable to spawn or planulate following long-term exposures to this concentration of the herbicide <ref name="tirthytwo">[http://www.int-res.com/articles/meps_oa/m344p081.pdf Cantin, N., & Negri, A. (2007). Photoinhibition from chronic herbicide exposure reduces reproductive output of reef-building corals. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 344, 81–93.]</ref>. For comparison, the EC50 values of diuron for green algae and diatoms are within a range of 10-20 μgl-1 <ref name="thirtytree">[http://www.apvma.gov.au/products/review/docs/diuron_environment.pdf APVMA. (2011). DIURON. Environment Assessment. Australian Pesticides and Veterinarian Medicine Authority.]</ref>.


 


==Heavy Metals, Antifouling Paints==

The effect of [[copper]] on corals is of serious concern because there are numerous sources that expose corals to copper. Copper is a major component of [[antifouling paints]], is found in sewer discharge, is a component of some fungicides and herbicides that are used on coastal agricultural crops, for wood preservation in waterworks, and in heat exchangers in power plants. Relatively low concentrations of copper can disrupt reproductive success in reef coral. Cu affected photosynthesis in zooxanthellae of [http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=206989 ''A. cervicornis''] at 4 µgl-1 <ref name="thirtyfoor">[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20089320 Bielmyer, G., Grosell, M., Bhagooli, R., Baker, A., Langdon, C., Gillette, P., et al. (2010). Differential effects of copper on three species of scleractinian corals and their algal symbionts (''Symbiodinium'' spp.). Aquat Toxicol, 97(2), 125-133.]</ref>. Negri& Heyward (2001) <ref name="thirtyfive">[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11125701 Negri , A., & Heyward , A. (2001). Inhibition of coral fertilisation and larval metamorphosis by tributyltin and copper. Mar Environ Res, 51(1), 17-27.]</ref> found that at 17 µg l-1 copper fertilization success in [http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=207023 ''Acropora millepora''] was reduced to 50%, and Victor & Richmond (2005) <ref name=Thirtysix">[http://www.kewalo.hawaii.edu/docs/richmond/Publications/2005Victor.pdf Victor, S., & Richmond, R. (2005). Effect of copper on fertilization success in the reef coral ''Acropora surculosa''. Mar Pollut Bull 50, 1448-1451.]</ref> found a 12h EC50 for impaired fertilization success of 11 μgl-1 in [http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=207085 ''A. surcusola'']. The 12h EC50 value for motility of [http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=207467 ''Goniastrea aspera''] larvae is 21 µgl-1 <ref name="eight"/>.

Until the ban on the use of [[TBT]] in 2003, [[antifouling paints]] contained the compound as biocidal component, along with copper and [[zinc]]. As of today, high concentrations are still present in harbour and waterway sediment and around shipwrecks. The latter may represent important sources of toxic substances. A good example has been described by Smith ''et al''. (2003) <ref name="thirtyeight">Smith, L., Negri, A., Philipp, E., Webster, N., & Heyward, A. (2003). The effects of antifoulant-paint-contaminated sediments on coral recruits and branchlets. Mar Biol, 143(4), 651-657.</ref>, who found extensive contamination of reef sediments for up to 250 m surrounding the grounding site of an oil carrier. Branchlets from adult corals exposed to [[sediments]] with a high concentration of contaminants (TBT 160 mg kg-1, Cu 1,180 mg kg−1, and Zn 1,570 mg kg−1) suffered significant mortality (38%), and Negri & Heyward (2001) <ref name="thirtyfive"/> showed that TBT inhibits fertilisation and larval metamorphosis in ''A. millepora'' with an IC50 of 2 µg l-1.

 

==See Also==
* [[Portal:Ecotox]]
* [[Coral reefs]]
* [[Threats to the coastal zone]]
* [[Coastal pollution and impacts]]
* [[Oil spill monitoring]]
* [[North Sea pollution from shipping: legal framework]]
* [[Heavy metals]]
* [[Endocrine disrupting compounds]]
* [[TBT and Imposex]]
* [[Common biomarkers for the assessment of marine pollution]]
* [http://coris.noaa.gov/ CoRIS NOAA's Coral Reef Information System]

 


==References==
<references />

[[Category:Coastal_and_marine_pollution]]
[[Category:Coral_reefs/tropical_oceans]]

{{author
|AuthorID=26539
|AuthorFullName=Everts, James
|AuthorName=Jweverts}}

Agglomeration

2013-04-16T07:11:06Z

Carolienk:

{{Definition|title=Agglomeration
|definition=It is defined in Directive 91/271/EEC as an area where the population and/or economic activities are sufficiently concentrated for urban waste water to be collected and conducted to an urban waste water treatment plant or to a final discharge point.<ref>http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-urbanwaste/info/glossary_en.htm. [http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-urbanwaste/info/glossary_en.htm]</ref>.
}}

==References==
<references/>

The Legal and Policy context of Multi-use Offshore Platforms

2013-04-10T09:27:48Z

Daphnisd: /* References */

[[Portal:MERMAID|The MERMAID project]], will develop concepts for a next generation offshore platforms for multi-use of ocean space for energy extraction, aquaculture and platform related transport. Both economical, technical, environmental and site-specific challenges related to multi-use offshore platforms (MUPs) will be investigated. An important aspect of this kind of large-scale development projects, is to identify the legislation and policies in place that regulate and sometimes limit the development of the MUPs. Within the MERMAID project an inventory <ref>MERMAID project deliverable 2.1: An inventory of Legislation of Polices</ref> was built of the international, European and site-specific legislation and policies that are related explicitly or implicitly to the development and adoption of offshore wind farms and [[Aquaculture|'''aquaculture projects''']]. Below, the most relevant international and European legislation and policies are listed.

An important concept in the development of MUPs is [[EM_(Ecosystem_based_Management)|'''Ecosystem Based Management''']] (EBM) which is universally acknowledged as an approach that accommodates the complete set of interactions within an ecosystem, including humans, rather than accounting for single issues, species, or ecosystem services in isolation. EBM could be bolstered by tools such as [[Spatial planning|'''Marine Spatial Planning''']] (MSP) and '''Ocean Zoning''' (OZ). MSP is an integrated planning framework to manage human activities in space and time to deliver on defined planning objectives, whereas OZ consists of a set of supervisory measures designed to enforce marine spatial plans. MSP constitutes the cornerstone of the legislation and policies that regulate and limit the development of human projects related to the marine environment.

==Offshore Wind Farms==

===International legislation and Policies===

The [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea|'''United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea''']] (UNCLOS; UN 1982) is a universal system of laws and rules for the world's oceans and seas, covering extensively the use of the oceans and their natural resources. UNCLOS introduces some concepts and regulations which are of specific importance for the development of MUPs:
* Countries with coasts own sovereign rights in a 200-nautical mile [[exclusive economic zone|'''exclusive economic zone''']] (EEZ) with respect to natural resources and specific economic activities, and exercise authority over marine science research and environmental protection. Hence, the coastal state has in its EEZ, the exclusive rights, to exploit its renewable resources and to construct and to authorize and regulate the construction, operation and use of artificial islands and of installation and structures to exploit those resources.
* With regard to '''navigation''', UNCLOS stipulates that the coastal state may in its EEZ or above its continental shelf, where necessary, establish reasonable safety zones around the artificial islands, installations and structures, in which it may take appropriate measures to ensure the safety of navigation and of the artificial islands, installations and structures.
* UNCLOS regulates the '''removal of installations''' once the offshore wind energy production has ceased.

There are some conventions of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) with regard to maritime safety which are (indirectly) relevant for the development of MUPs.

* The '''Convention on the International Regulationsfor Preventing Collisions at Sea''' (COLREG) is the main convention for regulating international maritime traffic.
* The '''International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea''' (SOLAS) introduces (Chapter V, regulation 8) the possibility to establish “areas to be avoided” and other routing measures.

Public participation plays a central role in the development process of offshore wind farms and is required by two international legal instruments: Articles 7 and 8 of the '''Aarhus Convention''' and the Protocol on Strategic Environmental Assessment under the '''Espoo EIA-Convention'''.

===European legislation and Policies===

Currently, the integration of electricity-producing renewable energies, including wind, is regulated by the '''EC Directive 2001/77/EC''' of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 September 2001 on the promotion of electricity produced from renewable energy sources in the internal electricity market. The 2001 Directive was replaced by the recently agreed '''Renewable Energy Directive''' during 2010 and 2011.

With regard to environmental considerations, offshore wind farm development must satisfy two ‘assessment’ processes required under European law: An [[Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)|'''Environmental Impact Assessment''']] (EIA) and in addition, the Directive 2001/42/EC on the assessment of the affects of certain plans and programmes on the environment (SEA Directive) requires the governments to conduct [[Strategic Environmental Assessment|'''Strategic Environmental Assessment''']] at the planning and programme level of offshore wind farm development.

Many of the potential impacts of wind farms can be significantly reduced through proper mitigation measures. Therefore, Europe, addressing the challenge of preserving environment from the potential adverse effects of wind farms, has recently established explicit rules mainly through the [[Birds_Directive,_Habitats_Directive,_NATURA_2000|'''Birds Directive''' and the '''Habitats Directive''']].


 

==Marine Aquaculture==

===International legislation and Policies===

When discussing the regulation of aquaculture in ocean waters, a distinction has to be made between the varying areas where operations can take place. The [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea|'''United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea''']] (UNCLOS; UN 1982) divides the oceans in several jurisdictional zones, which are subject to different legal regimes: the territorial sea, the exclusive economic zone, the continental shelf and the high seas. In the [[territorial sea|'''territorial sea''']], the legislation concerning aquaculture is mainly national law. UNCLOS gives a coastal state jurisdiction and sovereign rights over economic activity (such as marine aquaculture), marine scientific research and environmental matters in the [[exclusive economic zone|'''exclusive economic zone''']] (EEZ). Beyond the EEZ, the coastal state only has an exclusive right to the resources contained within the seabed in the area of the [[continental shelf|'''continental shelf''']]. In the '''high seas''', the construction of installations such as aquaculture sites constitutes a part of the ‘freedom of the high seas’. Furthermore, UNCLOS also addresses aspects related to environmental law which are of importance to marine aquaculture. Article 118 can be interpreted in a way that it requires states to ensure that their farming practices do not threaten wild stocks or interfere with their conservation.

With regard to the environmental aspects of marine aquaculture, several international conventions have to be taken into account:

* The 1972 Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, better known as the [[Stockholm Declaration|'''Stockholm Declaration''']].
* The '''Rio Declaration''' on Environment and Development of 1992, produced at the 1992 United Nations ‘Earth Summit’ comprises 27 principles intended to promote sustainable development around the world. During this meeting the [[Convention on Biological Diversity|'''Convention on Biological Diversity''']] (CBD) was introduced which is the most inclusive and prominent global tool dealing with the threats to marine and coastal biodiversity, and safeguarding, understanding and employing marine resources in a reasonable and eco-friendly manner.
* The '''FAO Code of Conduct for Fisheries''' (1995) sets out principles and international standards of behavior for responsible practices aiming at maintaining effective conservation, management and development of living aquatic resources with a respect for the ecosystem and biodiversity. The Code also governs the catch, processing and trade of fish and fishery products, fishing operations, aquaculture, fisheries research and the integration of fisheries into coastal area management.
* Established in 1992, during the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Brazil, the '''United Nations Agenda 21 plan''' is a universal set of actions to be adopted by countries all over the world in order to protect the environment from the adverse effects of human intervention.

===European legislation and Policies===
On a European scale, marine aquaculture is largely regulated by the regulations of the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP). This policy brings together a range of measures designed to achieve a thriving and sustainable European fishing industry, which also includes aquaculture. The Commission has embarked on a CFP reform process (Green Paper, 2009) since the targets agreed in 2002 to reach sustainable fisheries that have not been fulfilled.
With regard to the environmental aspects of marine aquaculture, several legislative documents are of importance:
* The [[European_Marine_Strategy_Framework_Directive|'''Marine Strategy Framework Directive''']] (MSFD) requires Member States to prepare national strategies to manage their seas to achieve Good Environmental Status (GES) by 2020. The directive, inter alia, promotes the integration of environmental considerations into all relevant policy areas and delivers the environmental pillar of the integrated maritime policy for the European Union.
* The [[Birds_Directive,_Habitats_Directive,_NATURA_2000|'''Birds and Habitats Directives''']]
* The EU [[Water Framework Directive|'''Water Framework Directive''']] (WFD) is considered as a crucial ingredient of the water protection management within the river basins and focuses on coastal and inland waters. The WFD is a regulatory set of rules that elucidates and updates current water legislation by introducing common objectives within the EU for water (inland surface waters, transitional waters, coastal waters and groundwater) and establishes an integrated and coordinated approach to water management in Europe.


 

==See also==

# [[Legislation for the sea]]
# [[Topic:International treaties]]
# [http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/closindx.htm United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS; 1982)]
# [http://www.imo.org/Pages/home.aspx The International Maritime Organization (IMO)]
# [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/index.htm Eurlex - direct free access to European Union law]
# [http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/maritimeaffairs_fisheries/index_en.htm The EU Directorate-General for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries (DG-MARE)]
# [http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/environment/ The EU Environment Directorate-General]
# [http://ec.europa.eu/energy/index_en.htm Energy Strategy for Europe]
# [http://www.fao.org/index_en.htm Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)]

 


==References==
<references/>
{{Mermaid}}

{| style="border:1px solid #abd5f5; background:#f1f5fc; margin:0em 0em 0em 5em; width:70%; padding:5px"
|<center>The authors of this article are [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid=20713 Phoebe Koundouri], [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid=26053 Vasilis Babalos], [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid=26339 Ioannis Anastasiou], [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid=26335 Antonis Antypas], [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid=26336 Nikolaos Kouregunis], [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid=26337 Aris Moussoulides], [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid=26338 Marianna Mousoulides], [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid=25908 Mavra Stithou], [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid=26054 Marian Stuiver], [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid=26056 Sander van den Burg], Robert Jan Fontein, [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid=26220 Thorbjørn Harkamp], Lisbeth Jess Plesner, [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid=14026 Barbara Zanuttigh], [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid=26043 Fabio Zagonari], [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid=11187 Inigo Losada], [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid=26046 Raul Guanche] Please note that others may also have edited the contents of this article. </center>
|}

[[Category:Regulations in coastal management]]
[[Category:Policy and decision making in coastal management]]

PEGASO project Indicators for Integrated Coastal Zone Management in the Mediterranean and Black Seas

2013-03-17T11:55:44Z

Daphnisd:

[[Indicators]] are quantitative/qualitative statements or measured/observed parameters that can be used to describe existing situations and measure changes or trends over time. A structured approach to [[Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)]] calls for indicators to measure progress in, and effects of, ICZM policies. Initiating, monitoring or evaluating an ICZM process, requires a set of governance, environmental, and socio-economic indicators that should relate to the specific management issues that triggered the initiation of the ICZM process, such as multiple conflicts, ecological degradation, community interest or the need for implementing a specific legislation (IOC-UNESCO, 2006). The purpose of using indicators in ICZM processes includes:
# Monitoring key characteristics of coastal and marine ecosystems against desired conditions.
# Evaluating coastal management options.
# Tracking progress and effectiveness of implemented measures and actions.
# Taking into consideration the short, and the long-term objectives of the plan.
# Guiding adaptive management.
# Helping in implementing the ecosystem approach.
# Helping providing, and helping communicating relevant information to decision-makers.

== Indicators for ICZM in the Mediterranean and Black Seas ==
The PEGASO project aims to build on existing capacities and develop common novel approaches to support integrated policies for the coastal, marine and maritime realms of the Mediterranean and Black Sea Basins in ways that are consistent with and relevant to the implementation of the [http://www.pap-thecoastcentre.org/about.php?blob_id=56&lang=en ICZM Protocol for the Mediterranean]. In this context efficient and easy to use tools for making sustainability assessments in the coastal zone are being refined and further developed. A suite of indicators that can be applied at different scales, both in the Mediterranean and Black sea, as sustainability assessment tool, and as tool to measure the implementation of ICZM policy and programmes will be provided. This is structured through three steps:
* review of existing indicator initiatives to measure the progress towards sustainable development in coastal zones, in particular for the Mediterranean and Black Sea Basins;
* assessment of these initiatives against the needs of relevant policy instruments;
* definition of new indicators where necessary, taking into account existing recommendations for ICZM indicators
As a result of this work, a core set of indicators will be identified to support ICZM across the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions; they cover both biophysical issues and socio-economic themes, and especially take into account the threats to the coastal zone. A multi-scale approach to indicator design has been adopted, to take into account the needs at local, national and regional scales. The work will identify the data and statistics needed to populate and maintain the indicators, and the outputs will be tested iteratively with end-users, across the region and within the [[PEGASO_CASES|10 Cases areas]].
What follows below is a description of the approach used to develop the ICZM PEGASO indicator set and the guidelines for the application phase (how to select and how to apply the indicators). This text is a summary of a more elaborate methodological paper, which can be found [[Media:PEGASO_methodological_paper.pdf|here]].

=== Indicators requirements for the implementation of the ICZM Protocolin the Mediterranean ===

The [http://www.pap-thecoastcentre.org/about.php?blob_id=56&lang=en ICZM Protocol for the Mediterranean], signed in Madrid in 2008, represents a milestone for what regards the implementation of ICZM in the Region, but also for the example it might represent to other Regional Seas. Furthermore, the Protocol represents a novelty being bold, innovative, forward looking, proactive, comprehensive, and integrated. For what regards the indicators for the Protocol, they can be grouped in the following categories:
* '''Compliance indicators (or Performance Indicators)''' with the Protocol; reporting degree of compliance in the implementation of the Protocol articles, according to the Reporting format to the Compliance Committee;
* '''Effectiveness indicators (or Impact indicators)''' - to measure to which degree the Protocol is effective in achieving its objectives/ how successfully the Protocol is implemented;
* '''Coastal management indicators (or Sustainable Development Indicators)''': assessments, state of the coastal environment, trends, etc.

=== ICZM indicators review: current status ===
In order to make use of the already existing initiatives on ICZM indicators a complete indicator literature review was undertaken. Some of the most relevant initiatives are listed below.
* '''[http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/ioc-oceans IOC UNESCO] handbook (global)''' - [http://www.vliz.be/imis/imis.php?module=ref&refid=107368 A Handbook for Measuring the Progress and Outcomes of Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management]
* '''[http://www.deduce.eu/ DEDUCE] (EU level)'''
* '''[http://www.planbleu.org/indexUK.html Plan Bleu] (Med Sea)''' - [http://www.planbleu.org/indexUK.html Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development (MSSD)]

Out of this review, more than 300 indicators were initially identified. As a second step the indicators present at least in two reviewed initiatives were selected. Then a further review was made by looking at the actual formulation (wording) of the single indicators. It was noticed that even if some indicators had a different wording theywere referring to the same objective. After this process some indicators not included in the first phase were re-introduced in the list.Furthermore, some indicators were included thanks to the contribution of experts that suggested a number of indicators to be included, this happened in particular for economic indicators.

=== The approach used in the selection of the indicators ===
In order to promote an integrated approach and to overcomethe traditional sectorial (e.g. fishery, tourism, energy) approach and in accordance with the DEDUCE approach, it has been decided to '''link the PEGASO set of indicators to the 10 ICZM policy objectives''' ([http://www.pegasoproject.eu/images/stories/WP2/pegaso_d2.1a-unott_110606-l-1.3.pdf see PEGASO Draft Deliverable 2.1.1a] ), '''reflecting the principles of ICZM which can be found in Article 6 of the Protocol''' and which were [[Media:PEGASO_Methodological_paper_Annex1.pdf|redrafted]] in order to reflect the relationship between Integrated Coastal Zone Management and the Ecosystem Approach (2 policy objectives were not included, for the complete methodological paper, [[Media:PEGASO_methodological_paper.pdf|click here]]).

According to the 8 policy objectives a set of [http://gstgis.com/alfresco/d/d/workspace/SpacesStore/35689597-ee5b-44bb-a29a-2e9ee637a0bc/PEGASO%20proposal%20indicator.xlsx 67 indicators] were selected choosing from the review of Plan bleu, IOC UNESCO and DEDUCE indicators. Every one of the policy objective is represented at least by 4 indicators. Moreover each indicator is linked with the correspondent ICZM Protocol article and ecological objective of UNEP-MAP. These [[Media:PEGASO_Methodological_paper_Annex2.pdf|ecological objectives]] have been defined as part of the road map application of the Ecosystem Approach in the Mediterranean and in the view of implementing the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive.

Starting from the PEGASO indicator set of 67 indicators a sub-set ('''[[Media:PEGASO_Methodological_paper_Annex3.pdf|core-set]]''') of 26 indicators was identified. The criteria to select them were the following ones:

* Include indicators covering the main priority issues of the ICZM Protocol (e.g. urban sprawl, land use, and coastal habitats)
* Include the indicators for the UNEP-MAP ecological objectives related to coastal zone
* Include the four main economic indicators (i.e. those considered by economic experts as minimum requirement to describe a coastal economy)

The testing phase of the chosen indicators of the core set will be applied at the two main spatial scales foreseen by the PEGASO project: the Regional (a regional assessment indicator set) and the [[PEGASO_CASES|CASES]] (local national, subregional) scale.

=== The methodological indicator factsheet: applying integration in the indicator assessment ===

For each indicator included in the core set, a '''[[Media:PEGASO_methodological_factsheet.pdf|methodological factsheet]]''' is compiled. The methodological factsheet reflects the way in which the PEGASO indicators have been conceived and organised.The PEGASO set of ICZM indicators should not only serve as a descriptive but also analytical tool for the understanding of the coastal system, being it a region (the Mediterranean or the Black Sea), a country or a local coastal area. The challenge is to perform an integrated assessment, or to develop a storyline, also at the level of the indicator assessment, both qualitative and quantitative. To achieve this, '''cross-linkages between indicators''' are needed: between Indicators of Sustainable Development and Indicators of Governance, between Driver, State, Pressure, Impact and Response indicators, cross-cutting issues, themes and sectoral objectives. Particular attention needs to be paid to the '''cause-effect relationships''' – and to the processes that define these relationships at the scale at which the analysis is conducted - when selecting these cross-linkages.

=== How to select and test indicators from the PEGASO indicator set ===
The following steps will be taken by the end users (i.e. CASES and partners involved in Regional Assessment) to select and test the indicators:
# Identification of priority ICZM '''policy objectives''' in the context, scale, region, CASE of application (taking into account relevance and data availability)
# '''Selection''' of a '''sub-set of indicators''' from the proposed core set indicators (see matrix in [[PEGASO_Methodological_paper_Annex2.pdf|Annex II]])
# '''Data collection and calculation''' of the selected indicators
# '''Analysis and interpretation''' of the results of the indicators calculation in the context of sustainability targets and ICZM policy objective(s), and link with other PEGASO tools
# Presentation of results to stakeholders

{{author
|AuthorID=7075
|AuthorFullName=Ann-Katrien Lescrauwaet
|AuthorName=Ann-Katrien Lescrauwaet}}

[[Category:PEGASO]]
[[Category:Principles and concepts in integrated coastal zone management]]

Snowball sampling

2013-03-13T08:34:07Z

Daphnisd: /* Source */

== Objectives ==
Snowball sampling is designed to identify people with particular knowledge, skills or characteristics that are needed as part of a committee and/or consultative process. Using this approach, a few potential respondents are contacted and asked whether they know of anybody with the characteristics that you are looking for in your research.

== Method ==
* Draft up a participation program (likely to be subject to change, but indicative).
* Approach stakeholders and ask for contacts.
* Gain contacts and ask them to participate.
* Community issues groups may emerge that can be included in the participation program.
* Continue the snowballing with contacts to gain more stakeholders if necessary.
* Ensure a diversity of contacts by widening the profile of persons involved in the snowballing exercise.

== Source ==
# http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/DSE/wcmn203.nsf/LinkView/D340630944BB2D51CA25708900062E9838C091705EA81A2FCA257091000F8579
{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO participation methods]]

Imagine methodology – The Systemic and Prospective Sustainability Analysis

2013-03-12T12:56:39Z

Daphnisd: /* See also */

__NOTITLE__
"''IMAGINE''" – The Systemic and Prospective Sustainability Analysis
== Context ==
Plan Bleu and Dr Simon Bell (Open Systems Research Group, Open University, UK) have developed, tested and consolidated the “''[[ECO-IMAGINE_-_European_COnferences_and_forum_for_Integrated_coastal_MAnagement_and_Geo-INformation_rEsearch|IMAGINE]]''” method which aims at facilitating the shaping of a sustainable development vision and an area project by committing stakeholders within a participatory process.
Originally designed to conduct systemic and prospective sustainability analysis, the “''IMAGINE''” approach was used in several Coastal Area Management Programs (CAMPs) implemented by the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP); “IMAGINE” has been successfully used in Malta (2000-2002), Lebanon (2002-2003), Algeria (2003-2004), Slovenia (2005) and Cyprus (2006-2007). In this context, Plan Bleu has supported the work of the local teams to facilitate the implementation of the method and to apply it in the CAMPs. Users of this method have been trained and, in some cases, have encouraged its use in other similar projects.

== Description ==
By using several tools “''IMAGINE''” aims at:
* Building a sustainable development vision and an area project by mobilizing actors within a participatory process;
* Describing, assessing and examining as completely as possible the level of sustainability of a local (eco-socio)system in the past, present and future;
* Setting goals to be achieved and following progress of the system towards sustainable development.
== Outputs / Results ==
* Supporting a participatory dynamic,
* Building scenarios, exploring the future,
* Defining and selecting a set of indicators to measure the sustainable development of an area in the past, the present and the future,
* Developing and implementing an action plan, and disseminating the outputs.
== Method / Approach ==
“''IMAGINE''” approach includes 4 stages implemented in 4 or 5 workshops. It is a dynamic process and a lively approach in constant development according to the different frameworks in which it is used. The 4 stages are the followings:
# 1st stage: studying and understanding the system, with a holistic vision of the territories, of the pressures and state. Identification of the main issues and the relevant indicators.
# 2nd stage: connecting and studying. A minimal and maximum value is given to each indicator, between which the criteria for adhering to sustainable development are assessed; this is what is called the Band of Equilibrium.
# 3rd stage: modelling and exploring through scenario method the trends and the alternatives regarding the future of the area. Diagrammatic representation of indicators compared to the band/belt of equilibrium provides a visual image of the “sustainability” of the area and of its possible futures.
# 4th stage: suggesting and acting: definition of an action / monitoring plan.
== Source ==
# http://www.planbleu.org
# “A practitioner’s guide to “IMAGINE” – the Systemic and Prospective Sustainability Analysis” [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/cahiers3_imagine_uk.pdf in English] or [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/cahiers3_imagine_fre.pdf French]

==See also==
# [[ECO-IMAGINE_-_European_COnferences_and_forum_for_Integrated_coastal_MAnagement_and_Geo-INformation_rEsearch]]
# [[PEGASO Workshop 1 - Understanding the context]]
# [[PEGASO Workshop 2 - Connecting and investigating]]
# [[PEGASO workshop 3 and 4 - modelling and exploring]]
# [[PEGASO Workshop 5 - Suggesting and acting]]

{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO IMAGINE workshops]]

PEGASO Workshop 1 - Understanding the context

2013-03-12T12:40:01Z

Daphnisd:

__NOTITLE__
Workshop 1 - Understanding the context 
The (eco)systemic approach allows to study a (coastal) area as a whole.
== Objective ==
The systemic approach allows studying a (coastal) area as a whole.
The “''[[Imagine methodology – The Systemic and Prospective Sustainability Analysis|IMAGINE]]''” Workshop 1 allows to studying and understanding the context, with a holistic vision of the territories: drivers, pressures, and state. This allows identifying the main issues (burning threats) and the relevant indicators.

== Methods / Tools ==
* Soft Systems Methodology
* Rich pictures
* Root definitions with six following items CATAOC (customers, actors, transformation, assumption, owner, constraints) or BITAOC (beneficiary, implementer, transformation, assumption, owner, constraints).
* Activity model: the purposeful activities necessary to achieve an agreed transformation.
* Actives listening: to ensure that participants are effectively “hearing” each other
* Logical framework: a four by four matrix for organizing the main themes of a project.
== Examples ==
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/PAC_Cyprus_1st_Workshop.pdf Report from the 1st Workshop in Cyprus, 23th – 24th November, 2006]
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/pac_slovenie_atelier1.pdf Report on the first SPSA Workshop in Slovenia, 12th – 13th, January 2005]
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/pac_alger_atelier1.pdf Report on the first SPSA Workshop in Boumerdès, 9th – 10th, February 2003]
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/pac_lib_I_final.pdf Workshop I, 30th September –1st October, 2002, CAMP Lebanon]
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/pac_mlt_annex1.pdf Report on the Training Workshop on the Systemic Sustainability Analysis within CAMP « Malta » 27, 28 & 29 March 2000]
== Sources ==
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/cahiers3_imagine_uk.pdf “A practitioner’s guide to “Imagine” – the Systemic and Prospective Sustainability Analysis”]
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/Imagine_VertigoUk.pdf IMAGINE: A set of tools and methods to assist integrated coastal zone management in the Mediterranean]

== See Also==
# [[Imagine methodology – The Systemic and Prospective Sustainability Analysis|IMAGINE methodology – The Systemic and Prospective Sustainability Analysis]]
# [[PEGASO Workshop 2 - Connecting and investigating]]
# [[PEGASO workshop 3 and 4 - modelling and exploring]]
# [[PEGASO Workshop 5 - Suggesting and acting]]
{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO IMAGINE workshops]]

Citizens monitoring

2013-03-12T12:01:06Z

Daphnisd: /* Sources */

== Objective ==
The aim of citizen monitoring is strengthening primary stakeholders’ involvement as active participants to track and analyse progress towards jointly agreed results and deciding on corrective action. Moreover it allows a cyclical learning process to reflect continuously on the effects of the actions and to create conducive conditions for change and action.

== Methods / Tools ==
Steps for citizen monitoring implementation
* Building commitment and engagement at the community level;
* Deciding on who participates and how this will evolve;
* During the process:
* Jointly establishing goals and expectations;
* Tracking progress and information collection,
* Joint analysis, sharing results and identifying action points
* Communication and feed-back systems to community; to program, other stakeholders and fora

== Tools required ==
* Community Score Card (CSC)
* Consulting and Monitoring Groups (CMGs)
* Community-based monitoring (CBMES)

== Examples ==
[http://scienceforcitizens.net/finder/?subject=13&terms=&difficulty=NONE&nearby=&duration_type=NONE&search_button.x=67&search_button.y=3&search_button=Search Database of citizen monitoring projects]
http://www.progettosubambiente.org/
http://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/bitstream/10012/970/1/cahunsbe2004.pdf

== Sources ==
# Goffredo S., Piccinetti C., Zaccanti F. 2004: Volunteers in marine conservation monitoring: Mediterranean Hippocampus Mission, a study on the distribution of seahorses carried out in collaboration with recreational scuba divers. Conservation Biology 18: 1492-1503
# [http://hdl.handle.net/10012/970 Hunsberg C.,2004, Exploring links between citizen environmental monitoring and decision making: three canadian case examples http://hdl.handle.net/10012/970]
{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO participation methods]]

PEGASO Workshop 5 - Suggesting and acting

2013-03-12T11:38:48Z

Daphnisd: /* See also */

__notitle__
Workshop 5 - Suggesting and acting
== Objective ==
This workshop aims at defining an action or a monitoring plan, and publishing the outputs. Based on the expertise of local stakeholders, the participatory process gives them the means to design and control their own management/development.
== Methods / Tools ==
* Brainstorming and / or marketing (forum)
* Actives listening: to ensure that participants are effectively “hearing” each other
* Logical framework: a four by four matrix for organising the main themes of a project
== Examples ==
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/pac_slovenie_atelier5.pdf Report on the 5th 'Imagine' Workshop, 22nd – 23rd June, 2005]
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/pac_alger_atelier5.pdf Report on the 5th SPSA Workshop in Algiers, 5th – 6th, December 2004]
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/pac_mlt_annex5.pdf Report on the firth workshop on the systemic sustainability analysis within camp « Malta », 14th–15th May 2001.]
== Sources ==
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/cahiers3_imagine_uk.pdf “A practitioner’s guide to “Imagine” – the Systemic and Prospective Sustainability Analysis”]
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/Imagine_VertigoUk.pdf IMAGINE : A set of tools and methods to assist integrated coastal zone management in the Mediterranean]

== See also==
# [[Imagine methodology – The Systemic and Prospective Sustainability Analysis|IMAGINE methodology – The Systemic and Prospective Sustainability Analysis]]
# [[PEGASO Workshop 1 - Understanding the context]]
# [[PEGASO Workshop 2 - Connecting and investigating]]
# [[PEGASO workshop 3 and 4 - modelling and exploring]]

{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO IMAGINE workshops]]

Logical framework matrix

2013-03-12T11:30:59Z

Daphnisd: /* Source */

__NOTITLE__
<h1 class=”hidden”>Logical Framework Matrix (Logframe)</h1>
== Objectives ==
The Logical Framework Matrix method aim to set out, by participatory consensus building, the logic of an ICZM intervention and to describe the important assumptions and risks that underlie this logic; moreover this method aims to create the basis for progress monitoring and evaluation by establishing objectively verifiable indicators and sources of verification, agreed by main stakeholders.

== Method ==
The Logframe is usually established by stakeholder discussions in the context of a workshop set-up. The Logframe is a planning table that consists of 4 lines for Overall Objectives, Project Purpose, Results, and Activities and 4 columns for Project Description, Objectively Verifiable Indicators, Sources of Verification, and Assumptions. The planning table is elaborated in the following way.
<ol>
<li>Complete the first column for the Project Description by ensuring that the logical levels are correct:
<ol style="list-style: lower-roman">
<li>Overall Objectives: the wider sectoral or ICZM objectives to which the intervention is designed to contribute</li>
<li>Project Purpose: the sustainable benefits to be delivered to the project beneficiaries, institutions or systems.</li>
<li>Results: the deliverables and services to be provided by the intervention</li>
<li>Activities: how the deliverables and services will be achieved.</li></ol></li>
<li>Identify external factors which will affect implementation and long-term sustainability but lie outside its control. State these factors as assumptions (i.e. in terms of the desired situation). Assess the relevance of the assumptions and state the relevant assumptions in the last column of the Logframe.</li>
<li>Complete the Logframe by stating Objectively Verifiable Indicators and Sources of Verification in the columns 2 and 3 of the matrix. </li>
<li>During implementation, use the logframe to monitor indicators and assumptions. React on relevant developments by contacting key stakeholders and by finding agreements on changes to the intervention logic.</li></ol>

== Examples ==
http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/fiche_projet/document/Annex%201%20-%20Logframe%20Matrix.pdf

== Source ==
# http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/how/delivering-aid/project-approach/index_en.htm
{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO participation methods]]

PEGASO workshop 3 and 4 - modelling and exploring

2013-03-12T11:19:28Z

Daphnisd: /* See also */

__notitle__
Workshop 3 and 4 - modelling and exploring
== Objective ==
These workshops aim at “modeling and exploring” (scenario building) the trends and the alternatives regarding the future of the area. The prospective and scenario methods allow to clarifying present actions and building scenarios in the light of the past trends as well as possible alternatives. Diagrammatic representation of indicators compared to the band of equilibrium provides a visual image of the “sustainability” of the area and of its possible futures.
== Methods / Tools ==
* Scenarios making
* Radial diagrams (AMOEBA)
* Prospective analysis
* SWOT and “what if” Analysis
* Actives listening: to ensure that participants are effectively “hearing” each other
* [[Logical_framework_matrix|Logical framework]]: a four by four matrix for organising the main themes of a project
== Examples ==
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/PAC_Cyprus_3rd_Workshop.pdf Report from the 3rd Workshop, 3rd April 2007]
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/pac_slovenie_atelier3.pdf Report on the 3rd SPSA Workshop in Slovenia, 6th – 7th, April 2005] [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/pac_slovenie_atelier4.pdf Report on the 4th 'Imagine' Workshop, 22nd – 23rd May, 2005]
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/pac_alger_atelier3.pdf Report on the 3rd SPSA Workshop in Algiers, 12th – 13th, October 2003] [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/pac_alger_atelier3.pdf Report on the 4rd SPSA Workshop in Algiers, 16th – 17th, May 2004]
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/pac_lib_III_final.pdf Workshop III, 28th – 29th May, 2003, CAMP Lebanon] [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/pac_lib_IV_final.pdf Workshop IV (Final Workshop), 13th-14th August 2003, CAMP Lebanon]
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/pac_mlt_annex3.pdf Report on the 3rd Training Workshop on the Systemic Sustainability Analysis within CAMP « Malta », 2nd – 4th October 2000] [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/pac_mlt_annex4.pdf Report on the Fourth Training Workshop on the Systemic Sustainability Analysis within CAMP « Malta », 5th – 7th February 2001]

== Sources ==
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/cahiers3_imagine_uk.pdf “A practitioner’s guide to “Imagine” – the Systemic and Prospective Sustainability Analysis”]
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/Imagine_VertigoUk.pdf IMAGINE : A set of tools and methods to assist integrated coastal zone management in the Mediterranean]
== See also ==
# [[Imagine methodology – The Systemic and Prospective Sustainability Analysis|IMAGINE methodology – The Systemic and Prospective Sustainability Analysis]]
# [[PEGASO Workshop 1 - Understanding the context]]
# [[PEGASO Workshop 2 - Connecting and investigating]]
# [[PEGASO Workshop 5 - Suggesting and acting]]

{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO IMAGINE workshops]]

PEGASO Workshop 2 - Connecting and investigating

2013-03-12T11:07:41Z

Daphnisd:

__notitle__
Workshop 2 - Connecting and investigating
== Objective ==
The sustainability indicators allow positioning the area in the process of sustainable development: agreeing [[sustainability indicators]] (SIs) to assess their meaning and agreeing with stakeholders on what is the acceptable / sustainable value. A minimal and maximum value is given to each indicator, between which the criteria for adhering to sustainable development are assessed; this is what is called the Band of Equilibrium.

== Methods / Tools ==
* Sustainability indicators
* Band of equilibrium
* Feasibility analysis
* Matrix development
* Focus group
* Actives listening: to ensure that participants are effectively “hearing” each other
* [[Logical_framework_matrix|Logical framework]]: a four by four matrix for organising the main themes of a project

== Examples ==
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/PAC_Cyprus_2nd_Workshop.pdf Report from the 2nd Workshop, 20 – 21 February, 2007]
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/pac_slovenie_atelier2.pdf Report on the second SPSA Workshop in Slovenia, 9th – 10th, February 2005]
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/pac_alger_atelier2.pdf Report on the second SPSA Workshop in Algiers, 10th – 12th, May 2003]
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/pac_lib_II_final.pdf Workshop II, 13th-14th December, 2002, CAMP Lebanon]
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/pac_mlt_annex2.pdf Report on the Second Training Workshop on the Systemic Sustainability Analysis within CAMP « Malta » 29 – 30 May 2000]

== Sources ==
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/cahiers3_imagine_uk.pdf “A practitioner’s guide to “Imagine” – the Systemic and Prospective Sustainability Analysis”]
# [http://www.planbleu.org/publications/Imagine_VertigoUk.pdf IMAGINE : A set of tools and methods to assist integrated coastal zone management in the Mediterranean]
== See also ==
# [[Imagine methodology – The Systemic and Prospective Sustainability Analysis]]
# [[PEGASO Workshop 1 - Understanding the context]]
# [[PEGASO workshop 3 and 4 - modelling and exploring]]
# [[PEGASO Workshop 5 - Suggesting and acting]]

{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO IMAGINE workshops]]

Key stakeholder interviews

2013-03-12T10:57:43Z

Daphnisd: /* Source */

== Objectives ==
[[Stakeholder]] interviews aim to elicit detailed information and opinions on an issue through wide-ranging discussion rather than specific questioning.

== Method ==
* Select interviewees according to designated criteria (areas of expertise, representation of groups, complementary of skills for committees).
* Arrange times and places for interviewing. Better quality information will be forthcoming if the interviewee is in a familiar setting, so it may be easier for the interviewer to go to them.
* Ensure uninterrupted time for at least one hour.
* Check all equipment and take spare tapes, batteries, pens, etc. to avoid any interruptions during the interview.
* Try to transcribe interview notes as soon as possible after the interview, while nuances, body language and asides are still in the interviewer’s memory.
* Prepare a report, including the verbatim interviews, and offer copies to the interviewees.

== Source ==
# [http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/effective-engagement/toolkit/tool-key-stakeholder-interviews A Key stakeholder interview guide:]
# http://www.esf-agentschap.be/uploadedFiles/Voor_ESF_promotoren/Zelfevaluatie_ESF-project/m_e_tool_series_indepth_interviews.pdf

A specific form of stakeholder interviews is semi-structured interviewing (SSI). Please see the following link for more information on SSI: http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5307e/x5307e08.htm
{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO participation methods]]

European Assessment Scenario Workshop (EASW)

2013-03-12T10:24:30Z

Daphnisd:

== Objective ==
The European Awareness Scenario Workshop, also known by the acronym EASW is a method of promoting discussion and participation. It is especially effective in local contexts and it is intended to foster debate on issues related to ecology and urban environment and, more generally, to encourage social participation in programs aimed at sustainable development in an area.
== Method ==
A EASW is built on three main activities:
<ol style="list-style: lower-alpha">
<li> the development of scenarios </li>
<li> stakeholder mapping; </li>
<li> EASW workshop for the development of visions and ideas.</li>
</ol>
Activities a. and b. are preparatory for the workshop and involve a small group of participants (mainly experts) to chose issues to be discussed. In this phases the discussion should be about scenarios considering “how” the issues can be considered and “who” should solve these problems. In this phase the stakeholders participating at the EASW should be identified. The workshop can last one or more days and need to be coordinated by a specific Facilitators team. The workshop is structured in 2 phases: future visions elaboration and ideas and action development. In the vision (10 years scenario) elaboration phase, participants, after a brief introductory session, should work divided in 4 groups of interest, according to the same social group (citizens, administrators, economic sector, technicians). All stakeholders discuss together on the chosen scenarios in order to identify the main emerging issues. Stakeholders are now divided in 4 mixed group in order to identify a maximum of 5 ideas to solve the discussed issues. All stakeholders meet finally together in order to vote the most significant ideas. Top rated ideas will finally be at the root of the local action plan developed by the participants to solve the problems under discussion.

== Example ==
[http://www.natreg.eu/uploads/best-practice/val_econ_bertuzzi.pdf EASW was used in the Torre Guaceto MPA within the project Wetland II (Interreg IIIB-CADSES 2000-2006) to elaborate a shared model for the development of the Marine Protected Area]

== Source ==
# http://socialni-dialog.si/pdf/easw_en.pdf
# http://cordis.europa.eu/easw/

{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO IMAGINE workshops]]

Organise a brainstorming session

2013-03-12T10:18:47Z

Daphnisd: /* Source */

== Description ==
Brainstorming allows to develop creative solutions to problems. It works by focusing on a problem, and then having participants come up with as many deliberately unusual solutions as possible and by pushing the ideas as far as possible.

== Method ==
* Select participants from as wide a range of disciplines with as broad a range of experience as possible. This brings many more creative ideas to the session.
* Select a leader for the session, who can:
** Outline any criteria that must be met.
** Keep the session on course.
** Encourage an enthusiastic, uncritical attitude among brainstormers.
** Encourage participation by all.
** Set times for the whole brainstorming session, and for generating ideas.
** Keep fresh ideas coming, and welcome creativity.
** Do not allow any one train of thought to dominate for too long.
** Do not criticise or evaluate during the brainstorming session (criticism stifles creativity and spoils the fun).
** Record ideas no matter how unrealistic, until there are no more ideas, or the time allocated for generating ideas is up.
** Record all ideas on a whiteboard or projector so that all participants can see all the ideas.
** Encourage ‘spark off’ associations from other people’s ideas, or combinations of ideas.
** Either evaluate solutions at the end of the brainstorming session to agree on the most practical way forward, or record the session either as notes, tape recording or video for later evaluation.

== Source ==
# http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/effective-engagement/toolkit/tool-brainstorming

{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO participation methods]]

Sketch match

2013-03-12T09:38:54Z

Pieter Maes:

__NOTITLE__
Sketch Match (interactive design)

== Objectives ==
Sketch Match is an interactive planning method, developed by Dutch Government Service. A Sketch Match is a series of interactive design sessions lasting up to three days in which participants (citizens, policymakers, farmers and other stakeholders), under supervision of a spatial designer and a process supervisor, analyze and work out the spatial problems in a specific region. With this method, local residents, experts and policy-makers together figuratively board a raft, or in English play an existing match, to draft plans for a specific, well-defined area. The challenge usually involves finding solutions to spatial planning issues that meet a range of different objectives relating to agriculture, water, nature, recreation, cultural history and rural housing. These different aspects are well discussed and weighted before the actual process of designing possible land use scenarios for the studied area.
The result of a Sketch Match is a spatial design, in the form of a ground plan, map, book, visual story, model, 3-D GIS visualization, or whatever form suits the project best.

== Method ==

Every Sketch Match consists of three phases:
* Registration and preparation;
* STEP 1 Describe the assignment and define the objectives
* STEP 2 Decide on the format of the sketch match
* STEP 3 Decide on date and invitations
* STEP 4 Facilitation arrangements
* STEP 5 Send invitations
* STEP 6 Organise a venue
* STEP 7 Collecting information and participants

=== Sketch Match Session ===
The participants are invited to express their expectations regarding the SketchMatch work session. After summarising the expectations and the problems all the participants are invited to go on the field trip to see the real situation of the study area in the field. The Sketch Match session- consists in forming work groups which analise: qualities, problems and potentials. Completion.
* Main issues found by the work groups.
* Development of the principles.
* Integration of all the issues and solutions in one that every stakeholder agrees with.

== Example ==
The project "Room for the River in Cat’s Bend, Romania" aims to develop a number of spatial draft plans for integrated flood management in the Galaţi–Tulcea region in Romania. The project is initiated by the Dutch Government Service for Land- and Water management (Dienst Landelijk Gebied, DLG). Together with the Dutch HKV-Consultants, DLG has formed an international consortium with 4 Romanian partners: Danube Delta National Institute, World Wildlife Fund Romania (WWF), Eco-Counselling Galaţi and ALMA-RO, Bucharest.

== Source ==
# [http://www.icid2011.nl/files/pdf/Paper%20I-3%20Zeeman.pdf Room for the River in Cat’s Bend Romania – INTERNAL REPORT- DDNI Contact.]

{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO participation methods]]

Scenario testing

2013-03-12T09:30:45Z

Daphnisd: /* Source */

== Objectives ==
Scenario testing is a way to test alternative (hypothetical) futures so as to make better choices today. Scenario testing is useful to identify general, broad, driving forces, which are applicable to all scenarios,

== Method ==
Invite participants who have knowledge of, or are affected by, the proposal or issue of interest.
Invite participants to identify the underlying paradigms or unwritten laws of change; trends or driving forces and collect into general categories (e.g. economy, socio/political and wildcards or uncertainties).
Consider how these might affect a situation, either singly or in combination, using these steps:
* Review the big picture
* Review general approaches to future studies
* Identify what you know and what you don’t know
* Select possible paradigm shifts and use them as an overall guide
* Cluster trends and see which driving forces are most relevant to your scenario
* Create alternative scenarios (similar to alternate scenes in a play) by mixing wildcards with trends and driving forces. Keep the number of scenarios small (four is ideal because it avoids the ‘either’ ‘or’ choice of two, and the good/bad/medium choice of three).
* Write a brief report that states assumptions and future framework; provides observations and conclusions, gives a range of possibilities, and focuses on the next steps coming out of this study. Each scenario should be about one page.

== Source ==
# http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/effective-engagement/toolkit/tool-scenario-testing

{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO participation methods]]

Future search conference

2013-03-12T09:28:06Z

Daphnisd: /* Source */

== Objective ==
A future search conference helps a group of people attempt to create a shared community vision of the future, and agree on a plan of action.

== Method ==
* Canvas people to be invited to be part of the future search.
* Book venue.
* Hire a facilitator.
* Advertise event.
* Brief participants and the facilitator on the aims and objectives of the session.
* Provide a background briefing for participants if required.
* Conduct discussion. One methodology for conducting the discussion outlined by Emery identifies five stages to the process:
* External environment: ‘the futures we are currently in’ are described by the participants.
* Desirable futures: groups construct a list of desirable futures that build upon the current situation.
* Desirable futures are transmitted into more explicit pictures.
* Testing desirable futures against the reality of the current situation and the criteria generated earlier in the meeting.
* Discussing the implementation of the desirable future, based on current circumstances and resources.
* Record issues raised by individuals and report back in the plenary sessions.
* Compile a report of proceedings.

== Source ==
# http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/effective-engagement/toolkit/tool-future-search-conference

{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO participation methods]]

Open space technology

2013-03-12T09:15:23Z

Daphnisd: /* Source */

== Objectives ==
Open space technology aims to provide an event which is relevant, timely, and participatory. Its relevance is determined by the participants, who determine the agenda, the length of the event, and the outcomes.

== Method ==
* Determine whether the open space technology process is the most appropriate technique for your situation, considering the people who are likely to take part and their preferences and attitudes, and the venues available to you.
* Select venue, facilitators and prepare information (open space technology can be successfully used in conjunction with other techniques such as conferences and workshops).
* Publicise the event.
* Describe process and rules to the participants, as outlined below:
* Principles: Whoever comes are the right people: Whatever happens is the only thing that could have: Whenever it starts is the right time: When it’s over, it’s over.
* Law of two feet: people are honour bound to walk away from proceedings and sessions which they believe are irrelevant.
* Follow due process.
* One by one, each person who wishes to, steps into the centre of the circle and announces their name and topics they feel passionate enough about to be willing to lead a break out session on that topic.
* Each passionate person writes the topic on a piece of paper along with time and venue for a discussion.
* Following announcements of topics by passionate people, the market place becomes open. The marketplace is a wall where all the topics, times and venues are posted to allow participants to decide which session to sign up to.
* Those who announced the topics facilitate the individual discussions and appoint people to record minutes on provided computers.
* Reconvene into the larger group and report back, or combine reports into one document and ensure widespread dissemination to all those who took part, and all those likely to make a decision.
== Example ==
The Brisbane (Australia) Social forum (2002 and 2003) and the World Social Forum (2002 and 2003) in Brazil are two cases where OST was successfully applied. These example highlights the capability of the this participatory method to be easily applicable for few participants (20 persons) up to thousands of people.
For more information: https://app.secure.griffith.edu.au/03/toolbox/casestudy_list.php

== Source ==
# http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/effective-engagement/toolkit/tool-open-space-technology
# [http://www.openspaceworld.com/users_guide.htm An user’s guide]

{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO participation methods]]

Mediation and Negotiation principles

2013-03-11T16:29:28Z

Daphnisd: /* Source */

== Objectives ==
Negotiation and mediation are methods aiming at dealing with conflict in a creative and positive way, and to find a solution or a way for people to hear and appreciate the differences between their perspectives.

== Method ==

Negotiation and mediation are highly specialised activities and a simplistic methodology is not available. Specialists are generally required for negotiation and mediation. The following excerpt has been provided as an introduction:

* Analyse the interest of the parties: this is important to understand the perceptions, the style of negotiation, and the interests and principles of the counterparts, as well as one’s own.
* Plan the negotiation, and determine:
** What are the expectations from the negotiation?
** What are the terms of the negotiation?
** What are the non-negotiable terms and what can be modified?
** What is the minimum that an agreement can be reached on?
** What is the negotiation strategy?
** What are the most important interests of the other parties?
** How does one interact with or manage people?
* Select the appropriate negotiation technique from among the following:
* Spiralling agreements: begin by reaching a minimum agreement, even though it is not related to the objectives, and build, bit by bit, on this first agreement.
* Changing of position: formulate the proposals in a different way, without changing the final result.
* Gathering information: ask for information from the other party to clarify their position.
* Making the cake bigger: offer alternatives that may be agreeable to the other party, without changing the terms.
* Commitments: formalise agreements orally and in writing before ending the negotiation.
* Negotiate: be sensitive and quick to adapt to changing situations, but do not lose sight of the objective. Avoid confrontational positions and try to understand the interests of the other party. Some aspects that could interfere with the negotiation are:
** Personal positions and interests.
** Psychological and emotional aspects of the persons (place, placement of chairs, body language, gestures, etc.).
** Difficulties in communication (differences in languages, different meanings of the same words, etc.).

== Source ==

# http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/effective-engagement/toolkit/tool-mediation-and-negotiation

{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO participation methods]]

Organise a focus group

2013-03-11T16:18:08Z

Daphnisd: /* Source */

== Objectives ==
Focus groups are a technique used to find out what issues are of most concern for a community or group when little or no information is available.

== Method ==
* Randomly select 6-10 people affected by or interested in the community issue to make up the focus group.
* Book venue and arrange catering if meeting goes across a meal time.
* Hire a facilitator.
* Prepare preliminary questions.
* Send reminders to participant with time, date, venue and questions.
* Brief participants and the facilitator on the aims and objectives of the session.
* Establish ground rules: keep focused, maintain momentum, get closure on questions.
* Encourage shy participants if they feel anxious about revealing their opinions/feelings.
* Engage a co-facilitator to record issues raised by individuals (may use audio, a/visual, and/or written notes).
* De-brief the participants and the facilitator.
* Compile a report of proceedings for the organisers, and offer a copy to the participants.

== Example ==

[http://ec.europa.eu/ourcoast/download.cfm?fileID=814 Focus groups experience in Estonia, The Netherlands and Sweden.]

== Source ==

# http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/effective-engagement/toolkit/tool-focus-groups

{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO participation methods]]

Organise a field trip

2013-03-11T16:14:22Z

Daphnisd: /* Source */

== Objectives ==
Field trips aim to let people to 'see for themselves' the place where a development is proposed to be placed, or to have a demonstration of a technique.

== Method ==
* Publicise the field trip
* Select times that suit the largest number of participants (e.g. select from after hours for full-time workers, daytime for retirees or parents with small children).
* Field trips can run from several hours to full days to allow the greatest number of participants to attend (depending on the time participants can spare; distance to be traveled; availability of expertise and/or case studies).
* Advertise the agenda and times of key presentations in appropriate place, e.g. local media; posters at local stores and libraries. This will allow participants to attend for shorter periods if necessary, and will allow them to choose sessions of interest.
* Ensure adequate staff on site to provide assistance (e.g. give directions; be available for first-aid; organise food and drink (catering, set-up and clean away), etcetera.
* Create and display signs that publicise the location of field trip through attachment of maps/directions with a pre-posted agenda.
* Ensure all publicity (signs, media releases, brochures) provide directions from major routes near the site.
* Allow time for participants to approach experts for one-to- one discussions.
* Provide printed public information materials during the field trip for interested participants.
* Appoint staff to act as note takers during the discussions.
* Provide feedback forms/survey/response sheets to facilitate public input.
* Pay attention to duty of care/safety issues. If site is difficult to access or contains elements of risk, make necessary preparations to avoid accidents with an emphasis on participants with disabilities.
* Organise catering if appropriate
* Ensure toilets are available.

== Source ==
# https://app.secure.griffith.edu.au/03/toolbox/display_tool.php?pk1=42

{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO participation methods]]

Organise an expert panel

2013-03-11T16:12:33Z

Daphnisd: /* Source */

== Objectives ==
Expert panels allow to hear a variety of informed ('expert') viewpoints from which to decide on recommendations or courses of action in relation to an issue or proposal; it is used when highly specialised input and opinion are required for a project.

== Method ==
* Select panellists on the basis of expertise, ensuring issues/groups of relevance are represented.
* Allow time for contacting experts for the panel, and negotiating a mutually suitable time. For very busy people, this can mean planning some months in advance.
* Employ a skilled and unbiased moderator.
* Provide background briefing information to panellists.
* Determine ground rules for the panel.
* Allow public input if possible and appropriate (see also: [[Fishbowls]]).
* Determine course of action.
* Present the outcomes of the panel discussions.

== Example ==
The Case study of Byron Shire Council (BSC) in New South Wales, showcases an excellent example of how a group with a limited budget used Expert Panel method in order to increase community education, inform decision-makers and raise the level of awareness about a particular issue. 
https://app.secure.griffith.edu.au/03/toolbox/casestudy_list.php

== Source ==
# https://app.secure.griffith.edu.au/03/toolbox/display_tool.php?pk1=39

{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO participation methods]]

Backcasting

2013-03-11T15:46:57Z

Daphnisd: /* Source */

== Objectives ==
Backcasting allows a group of people to weigh up the implications of different future options or policy goals.
== Method ==
# Define future goals and objectives, projecting 25-50 years into the future.
# Specify the scenario by analysing the technological and physical characteristics of a path that would lead towards the specified goals.
# Evaluate the scenario in terms of physical, technological and socio-economic feasibility and policy implications.
# Brainstorm ways this desired end-point can be achieved, working backwards to the present.
== Example ==
Guadalentı´n (Spain) and the Vald’Agri (Italy) workshops about the developing of local scenarios <ref>[http://www.ibcperu.org/doc/isis/6964.pdf Kok et al, Multi-scale narratives from an IA perspective: Part II. Participatory local scenario development, Futures 38 (2006) 285–311.]</ref>.

== Source ==
<references/>
<ol start="2"> <li > [http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/effective-engagement/toolkit/tool-backcasting To deepen your knowledge on backcasting: Quist J,, Vergragt P. Past and future of backcasting: The shift to stakeholder participation and a proposal for a methodological frameworkFutures 38 (2006) 1027–1045.]</li>
</ol>
[[Category:PEGASO participation methods]]
{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}

PEGASO participation methods

2013-03-11T10:33:24Z

Daphnisd: /* Setting the Vision */

==What is Participation?==
[[Public participation]] is widely recognised as a necessary tool to ensure a successful implementation of environmental policies: the Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, Principle 10 <ref name ="UNCED, 1992a">United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) (1992). Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development”, Rio de Janeiro 3-14 June 1992</ref> and Agenda 21 <ref name ="UNCED, 1992b">United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) (1992). Agenda 21 United Nations, Rio de Janeiro. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development”, Rio de Janeiro 3-14 June 1992.</ref> both called for increased public participation in environmental decision-making and led to the adoption in Europe of the Aarhus Convention <ref name="UN 1998">UN/ECE (1998). ‘Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters’ ECE Committee on Environmental Policy, Aarhus, pp. 28.</ref>. Furthermore participation has become a fundamental pillar of environmental processes as described in the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC), the 2002 EU Recommendation on ICZM (2002/413/EC) and the Mediterranean Protocol on ICZM <ref name="UNEP 2008">UNEP MAP, (2008). ICZM Protocol in the Mediterranean</ref>.

Participation can be defined as a process where individuals, groups and organisations choose to take an active role in making decisions that affect them <ref name="reed 2009">Reed M. S., Graves A., Dandy N., Posthumus H., Hubacek K., Morris J., Prell C., Quinn C. H., Stringen L. C. (2009). Who’s in and why? A typology of stakeholder analysis methods for natural resource management. In: Journal of Environmental Management 90, 1933–1949</ref>.
Since the Conference on Environment and Development of 1992, public participation has been recognised as a necessary element of all environmental procedures like environmental assessment, local Agenda 21, and ICZM.

The most famous [[Eight levels_of_public_participation|categorization of participation]] is the so called “''Ladder of participation''” (Arnstein, 1969 <ref name="Arnstein 1969">Arnstein S. R. (1969). A Ladder of Citizens Participation Journal of the American Institute of Planners 35:216-224)</ref>). The categorization shows the different ways in which the organisation responsible for activity (e.g. an authority) can involve participants, in this case citizens.

{| style="width=650px; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; font-size:85%;"
|[[File:Arnsteins_ladder_of_citizens_participation.png|650px]]
|-
|Fig. 1 : Arnstein’s ladder of citizen participation
|}

An effective participation process within environmental management brings several opportunities: it allows to obtain information that would not be available otherwise, it minimizes the uprising of conflicts and it leads to a greater quality and durability of decisions <ref name="Santos">Santos R., Antunes P., Baptista G., Mateus P., Madruga L. (2006). Stakeholder participation in the design of environmental policy mixes. In: Ecological Economics 60, 100–110 </ref><ref name="reed 2008">Reed M. S. (2008). Stakeholder participation for environmental management. A literature review. In: Biological Conservation 141, 2417–2431.</ref>. Furthermore, participation benefits include widening the representation of interests involved in decision-making, improving local “ownership” of strategies, having a positive impact on the legitimacy of policies and decision-making, ensuring that projects meet citizen’s needs <ref name="Fletcher 2003">Fletcher S. (2003). Stakeholder representation and the democratic basis of coastal partnerships in the UK. In: Marine Policy 27, 229–240</ref>.

Notwithstanding, stakeholder participation can also pose challenges. Involving stakeholders can be costly, time-consuming, labour-intensive, confrontational, and can ultimately delay development and implementation of policies. Additionally, if improperly managed, stakeholders participation can create new conflicts or escalate existing ones <ref name="NOAA 2007">NOAA Costal service center (2007). Introduction to stakeholder participation. In: www.csc.noaa.gov</ref>.


 


== Participation for ICZM ==

Active public participation is an essential requirement of the ICZM process and should have first priority in the planning and in the review of coastal zone management decisions and actions <ref name="UNCED, 1992a"/><ref name="UNEP 2008">UNEP MAP, (2008). ICZM Protocol in the Mediterranean</ref><ref name="Stojanovic">Stojanovic T., Ballinger C., Lalwani C. (2004). Successful integrated coastal management: measuring it with research and contributing to wise practice, Ocean & Coastal Management 47 (2004) 273–298.</ref><ref name="Edwards 1997">Edwards, S.D., Jones, P.J.S. and Nowell, D.E. (1997). Participation in coastal zone management initiatives a review and analysis of examples from the UK. Ocean and Coastal Management 36:143–165</ref>. For instance, article 14 of the Protocol on Integrated Coastal Management on the Mediterranean <ref name="UNEP 2008"/> foreseen the appropriate involvement of all stakeholders in the formulation and implementation of coastal and marine strategies, plans, programmes or projects in order to guarantee efficient governance of the ICZM process.


 


== Who is a stakeholder? ==

As defined by Freeman (1984) <ref name="Freeman 1984">Freeman R. E., Strategic Management, a stakeholder approach ,1984, Boston, Pitman.</ref> a stakeholder is who is affected by the decisions and actions taken by policy makers and who has the power to influence their outcome.
Accordingly, understanding who should be involved and on which level within an environmental management process is a complex issue. It is very important to understand how different stakeholders are related to each other and how they are related to the resources to be managed.

The [[ICZM_Process_diagram|2008 Protocol on ICZM]] in the Mediterranean devotes an entire article to the participation specifying who should be included in the participatory process. Article 14 of the Protocol states that:

<div style="width:70%; margin:5px auto; padding:10px; border: solid black 1px">“''the Parties shall take the necessary measures to ensure the appropriate involvement in the phases of the formulation and implementation of coastal and marine strategies, plans and programmes or projects, as well as the issuing of the various authorizations, of the various stakeholders, including:
* the territorial communities and public entities concerned;
* economic operators;
* non-governmental organizations;
* social actors;
* the public concerned''.”
</div>

This Protocol article is meant to be put in practice in the PEGASO project. Participation should be tailored and adapted to the context and objectives of the [[Portal:PEGASO|CASES]], and possibly integrated with other tools applied (e.g. indicators, scenarios).

 

== The participation within ICZM phases for the CASES ==

In the [[Portal:PEGASO|PEGASO CASES]] participation is more than just a tool: it is a fundamental pillar of the process of ICZM development as well as a cross-cutting component of the integrated PEGASO tool box (e.g. indicators, scenarios). The development of an ICZM plan follows the 5 phases depicted in the following scheme. Although the phases of ICZM are presented here as steps it is worth to remind that ICZM is an iterative, continuous, proactive and flexible process.

<imagemap>
Image:ICZM pegaso 3 1.png|center|300px|
rect 368 20 1788 504[[ICZM_Process_diagram/Establishment]]

rect 372 604 1780 1100[[ICZM_Process_diagram/Analysis_and_Future]]

rect 372 1200 1772 1696[[ICZM_Process_diagram/Setting_the_vision]]

rect 372 1800 1776 2300[[ICZM_Process_diagram/Designing_the_Future]]

rect 372 2396 1780 2896[[ICZM_Process_diagram/Realizing_the_Vision]]
</imagemap>

=== Establishment ===

In the [[ICZM_Process_diagram/Establishment|Establishment]] phase the main participatory objective is to ensure full engagement of stakeholders and the public in the plan process and its implementation. Moreover, in this phase is also important to apply participation in the identification of the coastal zone boundaries and in the analysis of the [[coastal zone]] according to the drivers and pressures.

<div style="width:70%; margin:5px auto; padding:0px 10px 10px 10px; border: solid black 1px">'''''Core questions of the [[ICZM_Process_diagram/Establishment|ESTABLISHMENT]] phase'''''
* Have you identified your coastal zone boundaries, drivers and pressures?
* Have you established an ICZM steering group including the main stakeholders of the area?
</div>
<div style="width:70%; margin:5px auto; padding:1px 10px 10px 10px; Background-color: lightgray">'''''Participatory objective:'''''
* ''To identify all the stakeholders for every end-product by means of a stakeholder analysis;''
* ''To identify the coastal zone boundaries, drivers and pressures.''
</div>

==== Suggested participatory methods ====
In order to carry on a [[stakeholder]] analysis different methods and approaches can be adopted:
* [[Organise an expert panel|Expert panel]]
* [[Organise a field trip|Field trip]]
* [[Organise a focus group|Focus group]]
* [[Mediation and Negotiation principles]]
* [[Open space technology]]
* [[Snowball sampling]]

In order to carry on an analysis of the coastal boundaries, the drivers and pressures of the coastal zone the following method can be used: [[Imagine_methodology_–_The_Systemic_and_Prospective_Sustainability_Analysis|IMAGINE]] [[PEGASO Workshop 1 - Understanding the context|Workshop 1]].


=== Analysis and futures ===
In the [[ICZM_Process_diagram/Analysis_and_Future|Analysis and futures]] phase the main participatory objective is to integrate in the analysis process and scenarios building all the local values and knowledge of stakeholders.

<div style="width:70%; margin:5px auto; padding:0px 10px 10px 10px; border: solid black 1px">'''''Core questions of the [[ICZM_Process_diagram/Analysis_and_Future|ANALYSIS AND FUTURES]] phase'''''
* Have you developed an analysis process in order to gain objectives of the previous ICZM phase (e.g. maps, indicators)?
* Have you developed potential future situations by means of scenario building?
</div>

<div style="width:70%; margin:5px auto; padding:1px 10px 10px 10px; Background-color: lightgray">'''''Participatory objective:'''''
* ''To fully engage stakeholders in the discussion of the analysis and scenarios generating process''
</div>

==== Suggested participatory methods ====
* [[Backcasting]]
* [[Future search conference]]
* [[Open space technology]]
* [[Scenario testing]]
* [[Sketch match]]
* [[PEGASO_workshop_3_and_4_-_modelling_and_exploring|IMAGINE Workshop 3 and 4]]


=== Setting the Vision ===
In the [[ICZM_Process_diagram/Setting_the_vision|Setting the Vision]] phase the main participatory objective is to fully engage the stakeholders into the process. In this phase stakeholders should actively contribute to the identification of the coastal issues.

<div style="width:70%; margin:5px auto; padding:0px 10px 10px 10px; border: solid black 1px">'''''Core questions of [[ICZM_Process_diagram/Setting_the_vision|SETTING THE VISION]] phase:'''''
* Have you agreed with stakeholders on a set of ICZM objectives?
</div>

<div style="width:70%; margin:5px auto; padding:1px 10px 10px 10px; Background-color: lightgray">'''''Participatory objective:'''''
* ''To fully engage stakeholders in the definition of the coastal issues and priorities to deal with in the ICZM strategy.''
</div>

==== Suggested participatory methods ====
* [[Organise a brainstorming session |Brainstorming]]
* [[European Assessment Scenario Workshop (EASW)]]
* [[Future search conference]]
* [[Key stakeholder interviews]]
* [[Mediation and Negotiation principles]]
* [[Open space technology|Open Space Technology]]
* [[PEGASO Workshop 2 - Connecting and investigating|IMAGINE Workshop 2]]


=== Designing the future ===

In the Plan and adoption phase the main participatory objective is to involve stakeholders to review and amend the Plan that would then be adopted.

<div style="width:70%; margin:5px auto; padding:0px 10px 10px 10px; border: solid black 1px">'''''Core questions of [[ICZM_Process_diagram/Designing_the_Future|DESIGNING THE FUTURE]] phase:'''''
* Have you developed a shared action plan for ICZM implementation?
</div>

<div style="width:70%; margin:5px auto; padding:1px 10px 10px 10px; Background-color: lightgray">'''''Participatory objective:'''''
* ''To fully engage stakeholders in the definition, discussion and the review of the Plan.''
</div>

==== Suggested participatory methods ====
* [[Organise_a_focus_group|Focus group]]
* [[Logical framework matrix]]
* [[Mediation and Negotiation principles]]
* [[Open space technology|Open Space Technology]]
* [[PEGASO_Workshop_5_-_Suggesting_and_acting|IMAGINE Workshop 5]]


=== Realising the Vision ===

In the [[ICZM_Process_diagram/Realizing_the_Vision|Realising the Vision]] phase the participation moments could regard the monitoring and evaluation of the results of the strategy adopted.

<div style="width:70%; margin:5px auto; padding:0px 10px 10px 10px; border: solid black 1px">'''''Core questions of [[ICZM_Process_diagram/Realizing_the_Vision|REALISING THE VISION]] phase:'''''
* Have you realised concrete management actions as a result of an ICZM programme?
</div>

==== Suggested participatory methods ====
* [[Citizens monitoring]]
* [[Organise_a_field_trip|Field trips]]
* [[Mediation and Negotiation principles]]
* [[Open space technology|Open Space Technology]]

 


== References ==
<references/>

 

{{Authorpegaso
|AuthorID1=7996
|AuthorID2=8387
|AuthorID3=7295
|Author1FullName=UNIVE team
|Author2FullName=Plan Bleu
|Author3FullName=PAP/RAC
}}
[[Category:PEGASO]]
[[Category: Participation and governance in coastal management]]
[[Category:Integrated_coastal_zone_management]]
[[Category:PEGASO participation methods]]

Marine Biotechnology in India

2013-03-08T16:42:32Z

Angelm: Created page with "Go back to: Home > Strategies, Policies and Programmes > Asia == National strategy for biotechnology == The first National Biotechnol..."

Go back to: [[Portal:Marine Biotechnology|Home]] > [[Strategies, Policies and Programmes]] > [[Asia]]

== National strategy for biotechnology ==

The first National Biotechnology Strategy <ref name="dbt">http://dbtindia.nic.in/biotech_strategy.htm</ref>) was approved in 2007-2008, over 20 years after the National Biotechnology Board and then the DBT (Department of Biotechnology) had been established (1982 and 1986 respectively). DBT manages development and funding in the overall area and puts 30% of its funds into public-private partnership activities in biotechnology. DBT works with the Science & Technology Councils of a number of individual states, including Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu & Kashmir, Mizoram, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Biotechnology Application Centres have been set up in Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal.

The Antarctic research activities, in which India has been involved since 1981, are the responsibility of the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MES, previously the Department of Ocean Development DOD).

DBT established the National Bio-resource Development Board NBDB in 1999, to help coordinate the development of India’s biodiversity towards new products and processes. NBDB’s remit includes marine bioresources.

Some States have established their own Biotechnology strategies: an example is the Government of Gujarat Department of Science and Technology Biotechnology Policy 2007-2012 <ref name="btm">http://btm.gujarat.gov.in/btm/pdf/bt-policy.pdf</ref>, which includes commentary on marine biotechnology.

== National strategy for marine biotechnology ==

At national level, DBT has a Task Force on Aquaculture and Marine Biotechnology, set up in 1998, which oversees individual research projects and network projects with national and international partners. The 11th Five Year Plan (2007-2012) mentions marine bioresources as elements of the biotechnology/science & technology aspects, including bioresource development and utilization and increased productivity and disease management in aquaculture, in the report of the DPB and biotechnology working party <ref name="nic">http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp11/wg11_subdbt.pdf</ref>.

At state level, Gujarat identifies “the key activities in marine biotechnology … screening of marine resource for new molecules/active compounds, bio-prospecting of marine resource, conservation of marine bio-diversity, extraction of value added products and utilization of marine bio-mass etc. The state would focus on mangrove, sea weed and marine micro flora- fauna” <ref name="guj">http://btm.gujarat.gov.in/btm/mar-bio-indian-marine.htm</ref>. The plan includes a marine biotechnology centre, but remains to be fulfilled.

India’s National Policy on Biofuels was released in 2009 and requires 20% blending of biofuel with petrol and diesel by 2017. In addition to work on land-based biomass and wastes, this has stimulated research and demonstration on algal biofuels, funded by DBT and the New Millennium Indian Leadership Initiative (NMILI). In addition to use of macroalgae for ethanol and biogas, there is a strong focus on Botryococcus braunii as a lipid-generating microalga. The US’s NREL completed a report in 2010 that pinpointed a very strong future for India in algal biofuels, based on a combination of light, temperature, available land and availability of inputs. The report estimates that 45%-100% of India’s diesel requirements could be replaced by algal biodiesel under favourable conditions and using no more than 10% of the current waste land area.

== Programmes ==

Although DBT is the major funder of biotechnology projects, there is increasing coordination with the other central organisations such as DST, CSIR, MES and ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research), to avoid duplication of research funding. Under the Task Force on Aquaculture and Marine Biotechnology, DBT has funded over 200 projects since 1998. The biotechnology-based projects explore detection, monitoring or prevention of diseases of farmed fish and shellfish, including the use of bacteriophages, and detection of food-borne toxins and pathogens. There has also been work on establishing fish and shellfish cell lines and, increasingly since 2006, publications on bioactives (including antimalarial compounds), biosurfactants and other active molecules from marine microbes and macroalgae . Water bioremediation using aquatic microorganism consortia is also a topic.

Network programmes currently under consideration are discovery and development of bioactives from marine actinobacteria, complete genome analyses of the important freshwater aquaculture fish Labeo rohita (Rohu, a carp) and Clarias batrachus (walking catfish), and a National Training Programme in molecular biology and biotechnology for fisheries professionals. DBT also supports Masters’ programmes in marine biotechnology, mainly at Goa University and Cochin University of Science and Technology CUSAT. DBT’s two most successful industry-focused programmes are the Small Business Research and Innovation Initiative SBIRI <ref name="sbi">http://www.sbiri.nic.in</ref> and the Biotechnology Industry Partnership Programme BIPP <ref name="uni">http://dbtindia.nic.in/uniquepage.asp?id_pk=680</ref>.

NMILI (New Millennium Indian Leadership Initiative <ref name="csi">http://www.csir.res.in/external/heads/collaborations/nmitli.htm</ref> is a programme of DST (the Department of Science and Technology), supervised by DST’s Council of Scientific & Industrial Research CSIR <ref name="rdp">http://rdpp.csir.res.in/csir_acsir/Home.aspx?MenuId=1</ref>. It is currently providing R13 crore (US$2.65M) for a project Bio-fuel from marine micro-algae, involving 9 universities and research institutes, running from 2010-2013. This has already produced enough algal biofuel for test runs in a car using 20% biodiesel.

The DBT has helped fund Biotechnology Parks or Incubation Centres in Lucknow Uttar Pradesh, Bangalore Karnataka, and in Kerala, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh states. Guwahati Biotech Park Incubation Centre has recently been launched. There is some activity by State and Central Governments to assist industry in developing marine biotechnology, including infrastructure such as marine biotech science parks, research centres and training, but nothing is yet established. Examples of future plans include: Gujarat – a dedicated Marine Biotechnology Park at Jamnagar or Bhavnagar; Andhra Pradesh - a 218-acre Marine Biotech Park (MBP) in Visakhapatnam; Tamil Nadu – and investment of over US$11M in a Marine Biotechnology Park at Mamallapuram, with incubators for pharmaceutical, food supplements and cosmetic developments; Karnataka – a joint plan between the Department of Fisheries and the University of Agricultural Sciences Dharwad for a marine biotech park at Karwar. The University of Science and Technology at Cochin, Kerala, is planning a Centre for Marine Biotechnology to work on genotypic characterization, gene-sequencing and isolation of novel enzymes and marine natural products and biomaterials, as well as establishing a database on marine biotechnology.

== Centres of marine biotechnology research ==

Marine biotechnology is carried out by CSIR-funded laboratories including the National Institute of Oceanography (NIO), Goa and Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSMCRI) and Universities and establishments funded by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), including structural and functional genomics, cultivation of seaweeds, bioprospecting and bioactives, microbial extremophiles, bioremediation. DBT’s biotechnology work includes fish and crustacean farming, with aspects such as disease diagnostics and vaccine development, bioactive compounds and transgenics.

The National Institute of Oceanography in Goa works in bioprospecting, marine microorganism biotechnology, cultivation of marine organisms for industrial use, chemical synthesis of novel compounds from the sea, biofilms and biofouling; it is a participant in the EU-funded project MAREX <ref name="nio">http://www.niot.res.in/groups/osti/osti_activites.php</ref>. CSMCRI at Bhavnagar carries out functional genomics and other –omics to make use of coastal and marine bioresources, with metabolic engineering of systems of interest <ref name="csm">http://www.csmcri.org/</ref>. Extensive work is carried out on natural chemistry of marine bioactives, on intensive seaweed aquaculture and value-added products including ethanol, and environmental applications of marine microorganisms including bioremediation. The University of Madras has used macroalgae to produce biogas through anaerobic digestion. ICGEB (the International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology) has a programme on modification of microalgae for biofuels production.

The Antarctic research activities are led by the National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean research NCAOR, Goa, which plans and coordinates projects, sends expeditions to polar and oceanic regions, and is responsible for India’s Maitri station in Antarctica <ref name="dod">http://dod.nic.in/ncaor.html</ref>.

A number of Universities offer MScs and/or PhDs in Marine Biotechnology, including Andhra University <ref name="and">http://www.andhrauniversity.info/index.html</ref>, Visakhapatnam, focusing on fish and prawn cultural biotech; Goa University <ref name="goa">http://www.unigoa.ac.in/department.php?adepid=21</ref>, where the programme is direct-funded by DBT, with support by FIST-DST (the Dept of Science and Technology’s Infrastructure Fund <ref name="dst">http://www.fist-dst.org/</ref> since 2008, with research foci including marine enzymes, bioactives, bioremediation and risk assessment of rDNA in the marine environment; AMET University, Kanathur, working on marine bioactives and industrial applications and offering PhD and MPhil courses in marine biotechnology <ref name="ame">http://www.ametuniv.ac.in/coursemscmb.htm</ref>. Cochin University of Science and Technology offers an MTech in Marine Biotechnology.

ICAR’s institutes CIBA (Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture <ref name="res">http://www.ciba.res.in/</ref>) and CIFA (Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture <ref name="cif">http://www.cifa.in/</ref>) are working with Nofima (the Norwegian Institute of Food , Fisheries and Aquaculture Research) to sequence the transcriptome and genome of the tiger shrimp. CIBA has a number of in-house and externally-funded projects in marine biotechnology, including genomics for abiotic stress, genomics for productivity enhancement and RNA vaccines for shrimp diseases. There is a co-funded mega-project ‘Indo-Norwegian platform on fish and shellfish vaccine development’, with involvement of 10 R&D laboratories in India including ICAR’s institutes, the DBT-funded National Institute of Immunology, State and Central Universities and ICGEB, the International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, due to finish its first phase in March 2013.

== Infrastructures ==

For algal biofuels, DBT created a National Algal Biofuel Network in 2008-2009. This involves 12 laboratories with activities in culture collections and repositories, strain improvement, production system development, and collection and characterisation. DBT is also co-funding with ICT a new national Centre for Energy Biosciences, which will have some aspect of marine bioenergy as yet undefined.

One of DBT’s projects funded through the Task Force on Aquaculture and Marine Biotechnology has led to the establishment of a National Repository for fish and shellfish cell lines, based at the National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow <ref name="nbf">http://www.nbfgr.res.in/</ref>. This will host about 40 cell lines which have so far been developed, and will be available for academic and industry work.

== Private investment ==

The broad biotechnology sector in India is well-established and growing, especially in human health and in nutraceutical areas. Many companies are active in extracting and selling carotenoids and other pigments from algae. Parry Nutraceuticals produces Spirulina for health supplements, but also extracts the blue food colourant phycocyanin from Spirulina and uses Dunaliella to produce beta-carotene. Mangalore Biotech <ref name="man">http://www.mangalorebiotech.com/</ref> makes diagnostic kits for bacterial and viral infections in aquaculture, immunostimulants for shrimp culture and a marine bacteriophage-based product to treat Vibrio infections in farmed shrimp; the products were originally developed with funding from India’s DBT and licensed to the company by the research institutions involved. Poseidon Biotech, Chennai, has commercialised other DBT-funded inventions . Shantha Marine, based in Chennai, sells algal beta-carotene, algal lutein, alpha carotene, zeaxanthin and cryptoxanthin and beta-carotene fortified food products. GeoMarine Biotechnologies is a company providing probiotics for use in aquaculture.

== Trends ==

DBT’s industry-focused programmes SBIRI and BIPP are likely to be merged and managed by BIRAC (Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council), the Government of India’s not-for-profit company that promotes biotechnology across the range from researchers to companies. BIRAC will deal with low risk and high risk projects in various sectors of biotechnology, IPR issues, bio-incubators, bio-clusters and commercialization aspects including policy matters.

The Central Government’s 12th Plan will establish an Institute of Marine and Microbial Biotechnology, under the DBT (Department of Biotechnology). The budget is currently being finalised for Cabinet approval.

A Memorandum of Understanding has been signed with Norway for collaboration on disease prevention in Indian aquaculture, which will underpin further progress in projects such as the platform on fish and shellfish vaccines.

== References ==
<references/>

== Disclaimer==

{{Marinebiotechdisclaimer2}}

[[category:Marine Biotechnology]]

Marine Biotechnology in Japan

2013-03-08T16:29:12Z

Angelm: Created page with "Go back to: Home > Strategies, Policies and Programmes > Asia == National strategy for biotechnology == The Biotechnology Strategy Co..."

Go back to: [[Portal:Marine Biotechnology|Home]] > [[Strategies, Policies and Programmes]] > [[Asia]]

== National strategy for biotechnology ==

The Biotechnology Strategy Council issued Guidelines in December 2002. BioStrategy 2002 incorporated 4 Bio themes – Bio-Medical, Bio-Agricultural, Bio-Ecological and Bio-Informatics. The contributions of these four activities to the overall Japanese biotechnology market were projected to reach 8.4 trillion Yen, 6.3 trillion Yen, 4.2 trillion yen and 5.3 trillion Yen respectively, by 2010. Bio-ecological included environmental and biofuels applications.

== National strategy for marine biotechnology ==

Marine biotechnology was included in the 2002 BioStrategy Guidelines, in the context of marine bioactives, molecular aquaculture and disease prevention, and infrastructural support (training, industrial support and interdisciplinary projects).

== Programmes ==

The 3rd Science and Technology Basic Plan (STBP) 2006-2010 <ref name="cao">http://www8.cao.go.jp/cstp/english/basic/index.html</ref> and the 4th STBP 2011-2015 provide the philosophical framework for practical approaches to R&D support. The 4th Plan includes green innovation and life innovation as two of its targets.

There is a Strategic International Research Cooperative Programme, the responsibility of the Department of International Affairs, which enacts those elements of the government's STBPs dealing with strategic promotion of international activities in science and technology <ref name="jst">http://www.jst.go.jp/inter/english/project/purpose.html</ref>. The Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST <ref name="jtt">http://www.jst.go.jp/EN/</ref>) has been implementing the Strategic International Research Cooperative Programme since 2003, as designated by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology on the basis of intergovernmental agreements. There are cooperations on marine biotechnology with CNRS France <ref name="cnr">http://www.jst.go.jp/inter/english/project/country/france.html</ref>, bioenergy including marine microbes with CNPq Brazil <ref name="bra">http://www.jst.go.jp/inter/english/project/country/brazil.html</ref>, and marine science including algae with DIISR Australia <ref name="aus">http://www.jst.go.jp/inter/english/project/country/australia.html</ref>.

In 2004, the Nippon Foundation and the United Nations established a Japan Fellowship programme for Government officials and other professionals focusing on ocean-related topics, including coastal zone management and conservation and management of marine living resources <ref name="nip">http://www.nippon-foundation.or.jp/eng/ocean/scholarship/index.html</ref>. The programme is intended to raise knowledge and competence of international marine legal and management aspects, aligning with the UN’s work in the Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (UN DOALOS).

== Centres of marine biotechnology research ==

University-based centres include the Shimoda Marine Research Centre <ref name="shi">http://www.shimoda.tsukuba.ac.jp/eng-home.html</ref> at the University of Tsukuba, working on molecular biology, cell biology, genetics and the Biotechnology Research Centre <ref name="put">http://www.pu-toyama.ac.jp/english/eindex.html</ref> at Toyama Prefectural University.

The Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC <ref name="jam">http://www.jamstec.go.jp/e/index.html</ref>) was inaugurated in 1990. In 2007, its budget was Yen 41.9B (approx €250M).

There is some economic development and industrial interest in marine biotechnology. The Japan External Trade Organisation (JETRO <ref name="jet">http://www.jetro.go.jp/en/reports</ref>) has an innovation collaboration programme JETRO-RIT, Regional Industry Tie-up; JETRO-RIT is supporting links between Hokkaido and New Zealand in the Hokkaido Bioindustrial Exchange with collaborations involving salmon skin collagen, salmon proteoglycan and marine functional foods <ref name="tro">https://www.jetro.go.jp/newzealand/Events/RIT2010.htm</ref>.

== Infrastructures ==

The first substantial activity devoted to marine biotechnology was the establishment in 1990 of the Marine Biotechnology Institute, a 10-year project with over US$180M provided jointly by 24 Japanese companies and the Ministry of International Trade and Industry MITI. The lasting legacy of this is the Marine Biotechnology Institute Co Culture Collection at NBRC, the National Biological Resource Center <ref name="nbc">http://www.nbrc.nite.go.jp/e/070328-e.html</ref>. Other centres within the National Institute of Technology & Evaluation Department of Biotechnology <ref name="bio">http://www.bio.nite.go.jp/pamphlet/e/nbrc-e.html</ref> include the Genome Analysis Centre (NGAC), the Biotechnology Development Centre (NBDC) and the Patented Microorganisms Depository (NPMD).

JAMSTEC has set up BISMaL, the Biological Information System for Marine Life, in 2009. This includes a publicly-accessible database of marine organisms, distribution, photographs and video based on information gathered by Japanese research vessels and submersibles <ref name="god">http://www.godac.jp/portal/page/portal/bismal/AboutBISMaL/English</ref>. JAMSTEC also hosts the Marine Biological Sample Database <ref name="ste">http://www.godac.jamstec.go.jp/bio-sample/index_e.html</ref>, information on collections made by JAMSTEC vessels; and Extremobase <ref name="ext">http://www.jamstec.go.jp/gbrowser/cgi-bin/top.cgi</ref>, sequences from JAMSTEC’s collection of extremophile organisms.

The NBRP (National Bioresource Project <ref name="brp">http://www.nbrp.jp/</ref>) aims to create systematic and complete collections of all Japan’s biodiversity. The National Institute of Environmental Studies manages the NBRP algae project <ref name="shi>http://www.shigen.nig.ac.jp/algae/</ref>. Medaka and zebrafish are also included in NBRP, due to their involvement in experimental physiology, embryology, molecular biology and medicines-testing.

The Japanese Society for Marine Biotechnology has a range of members including chemicals, energy and health companies <ref name="mbj">http://marinebiotechnology.jp/en/index.html</ref>.

== Private funding ==

The biotechnology sector in Japan is strongly-established and was already worth almost US$20B in 2007, mainly pharmaceutical, food and chemicals activities, with well over 1000 companies. In November 2011 a joint venture was announced between three Japanese companies, IHI, Gene Technology YK and Neo-Morgan Laboratory Inc, IHI NeoG Algae LLC, to develop algal biofuels using the high-lipid producing Enomoto strain of Botryococcus braunii . Tokyo Gas established a pilot plant that used anaerobic digestion to turn seaweeds into bioenergy some time ago but it is not certain whether this has proceeded to a full-scale plant.

== References ==
<references/>

== Disclaimer==

{{Marinebiotechdisclaimer2}}

[[category:Marine Biotechnology]]

Marine Biotechnology in Korea

2013-03-08T16:10:01Z

Angelm: Created page with "Go back to: Home > Strategies, Policies and Programmes > Asia == National strategy for biotechnology == South Korea’s first biotech..."

Go back to: [[Portal:Marine Biotechnology|Home]] > [[Strategies, Policies and Programmes]] > [[Asia]]

== National strategy for biotechnology ==

South Korea’s first biotechnology development plan “Biotech 2000” was launched end-1993 with a budget of Won 15.5 trillion (US$18B), with responsibilities shared across 7 government departments including Maritime Affairs and Fisheries. In 2006, “Bio-Vision 2016” was launched. The main aim was to accelerate South Korea’s economic development using biosciences and biotechnology so that it could join the ranks of the G-7 nations by 2010. Biotech 2000 identified 10 strategic project themes including New Functional Biomaterials, Biodiversity and Environmental Protection and Bioenergy Production. In 2011 the National Science and Technology Commission was reformed, with a stronger role in funding, driving and evaluating Korea’s research and innovation agenda .

In 1996, an Ocean Development Plan was established, with a budget of US$33B for the following 10 years, including the establishment of a maritime management system, the exploration of resources at sea and the development of deep seabed mineral resources and energy; as well as international cooperation projects. This was replaced by Ocean Korea 21 for 2001-2010 and the Second Ocean Korea 21 for 2011-2020, which are intended to form a coherent and continuous plan for all marine, coastal and Economic Exclusion Zone activities. The 2nd OK21 excludes fisheries because of the disappearance of the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries into MLTM (the Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime – created by the merger of MOMAF with the Ministry of Construction and Transportation). However, it does include marine bio-systems preservation and marine science & technology as elements, with macroalgal research and marine biodiscovery as part of these <ref name="eas">http://eascongress.pemsea.org/sites/default/files/document-files/presentation-st41-kim.pdf</ref>.

== National strategy for marine biotechnology ==

Blue-Bio 2016 is a specific strategic plan for marine biotechnology. The Marine Biotech Supporting Centre under the Korean Institute of Marine Science and Technology works with the MLTM to manage the plan. There is an intention to establish a Marine Bio-resources Research Institute in 2013, with $145M investment. This will include Marine Bio-resources stock centres (culture collections), international collaborations for tropical, South Pole and North Pole explorations and construction of special research vessels. A Master Plan for Marine Biotechnology is being developed, building on the Biotechnology Promotion Act of 1983, Biotech 2000, Bio-Vision 2016 and Blue-Bio 2016. A Marine Bioresources Management Law was introduced in 2012.

MOMAF (Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries) has produced several documents concerning national marine strategy, including the Marine Development Basic Plan (1996) and Ocean Korea 21 (2000), in which marine research played a part. Marine biotechnology is an explicit part of the Biotechnology Fostering Policy, within Marine Biology and Fisheries, and is now a joint responsibility of MLTM and MAF (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry).

== Programmes ==

Within the biotechnology development plans, several National R&D programmes and plans have been established, including the 21st Century R&D Program, the National Critical R&D Program, the Creative Research Initiative, the National Research Laboratory Program, the Basic Bioscience Program, the International Joint R&D Project and the Nanotechnology Development Plan <ref name="mes">http://english.mest.go.kr/web/1715/site/contents/en/en_0217.jsp</ref>. These form an umbrella to which marine biotechnology can contribute.

More specifically, in 2000, MOMAF produced planning and research reports concerning the future of marine BT and established the Marine Bio 21 Project in 2004, which established and supports a number of marine biotech-focused research centres in Korea, with a budget of 250B won (c. €175M in 2005) over 10 years. The fisheries and aquaculture main themes are the use of biotechnology for the restoration of fisheries resources, advanced aquaculture, the use of marine biota and gene resources (including novel bioactives and biomaterials), and exploitation into future major industries. The R&D budget for marine biotechnology projects was 3.4 billion won in 2001, 6.4 billion won in 2004, and 8.3 billion won (c. €6M) in 2005. The budget for 2007 was over 10 billion won (€10M).

Since then, two programmes in genomics have been established: Molecular Genomics of Marine & Extreme Organisms (MLTM) and Genome Research and Utilization of Marine Organisms (MAF) as part of the marine biotechnology development strategy.

In 2011, the Next Generation Bio-green 21 Project was announced, managed by the Rural Development Agency, with a budget of US$12B <ref name="rda">http://www.rda.go.kr/foreign/eng/agd_fht.jsp</ref>. Crop biotechnology is a major focus of the 7 national programmes within this, and the Program is supporting work on fermentation of red seaweeds for biofuels.

The National S&T Plan 2008-2012 has “Core Technologies for New Industry: Marine Organism Conservation and MBt” as one of its 7 investment areas.

== Centres of marine biotechnology research ==

The Korea Ocean Research & Development Institute KORDI was renamed the Korean Institute of Ocean Science and Technology KIOST in mid-July 2012. The National Research Laboratory of Marine Microbial Diversity is at KIOST. The Marine Biotechnology Research Centre MBRC at KIOST is involved in exploration, sampling and biotechnology development of marine microbes, seaweeds and marine animals from a vast range of waters, including the Arctic, the Antarctic, tropical regions and deep-sea, as well as coastal area around the Korean peninsula <ref name="kor">http://mbrc.kordi.re.kr/?_p=introduction</ref>. Omics technologies are used to characterize populations and identify novel molecules, including enzymes such as epoxide hydrolases, agents to control biofilms, biomarkers for environmental stress and antimicrobial peptides. KIOST has wide international collaborations.

KOPRI (the Korea Polar Research Institute) works on relevant ecology and biology of Arctic and Antarctic land, ice and water <ref name="pri">http://eng.kopri.re.kr/home_e/contents/e_2160000/view.cms</ref>.

Various Universities in Korea are involved in marine biotechnology and supporting activities, including:

The Division of Marine Environment & Bioscience, Korea Maritime University offering a Major in Marine Biotechnology, with training adapted to the needs of a number of industries that can benefit from marine biotechnology, including foods, aquaculture, feeds and natural products <ref name="hhu">http://ocean-meb.hhu.ac.kr/</ref>;

The College of Ocean Science and Technology, University of Kunsan, active in a wide range of mariculture, fisheries and aquaculture science, with a department of Marine Biotechnology with interests in applying this to mariculture <ref name="kun">http://www.kunsan.ac.kr/eng/sub02/sub02_16.jsp</ref>;

Pukyong National University, hosting the Marine Bioprocess Research Center <ref name="pkn">http://www.pknu.ac.kr/jsp_eng/research_a.jsp</ref>, the Marine Biochemistry Laboratory, the Ocean Life Science Research Center, the Maritime Transformation Research Center, and a Marine Disease Control and Prevention Center. The MBRC was established as a Marine Bio 21 centre. There is extensive research into novel bioactives and materials from marine species, developing the necessary bioprocesses for large-scale production, and managing sample collections. The most recent grant to the MBRC was 6B Won;

Seoul National University’s CMDD (Center for Marine Natural Products and Drug Discovery <ref name="snu">http://cns0.snu.ac.kr/eng/se07_re/se07_re_a/se07_re_a08/se07_re_a08.jsp</ref>) in the College of Natural Sciences, which is a Marine Bio 21 centre. New bioactives are isolated, characterized and screened for activity in metabolic diseases, immune diseases and infectious diseases, using target-based high throughput screening;

The Marine-bio center of Silla University in Busan, which houses companies active in developing and marketing marine-origin products, such as amBio.

Organisations working on marine biofuels include KITECH (the Korea Institute of Industrial Technology <ref name="rek">http://eng.kitech.re.kr/</ref>) and KIOST. The INHA Industry Partnership Institute has developed methods for making biofuels from [macro]algae. Kangwon National University has developed a method of using freshwater cyanobacterial species to produce fuel ethanol. Sungkyunkwan University is working on metabolically-engineered yeasts for fermentation of red seaweeds for biofuels, with the Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology and Seoul National University, supported by the BioGreen 21 Program. Sungkyunkwan University also holds patents on genetically-modified microalgae.

A number of National Universities have departments of marine (or ocean) biotechnology, including Chonnam, Gyeongsang, Jeju (Cheju), Kangnung, Soonchunhyang and Sunmoon.

== Infrastructures ==

The National Research Laboratory (NRL) programme was launched in 1999 to identify needs for research centres of excellence and support them in improving technological competitiveness. MEST provides approximately $250,000 a year for five years to each NRL project, of which there are now over 440, mainly in universities and research institutes but including 52 in industry. Relevant NRLs include the Marine Molecular and Environment Biosciences Laboratory at Hanyang University <ref name="yan">http://www.hanyang.ac.kr/user/indexFrame.action?framePath=div3_1.jsp&siteId=hanyangeng&leftPage=&rightPage=04_04_05.html&codyMenuSeq=1591</ref>) and the NRL for Marine Microbial Diversity at KIOST.

NIBR (the National Institute of Biological Resources <ref name="nib">http://www.nibr.go.kr/english/main/main.jsp</ref> was established in 2007, to house and expand national biodiversity collections (target 2.5 million samples by 2020) and make these available to bioindustry, as well as educate, and use molecular genomics for taxonomy. NIBR hosts the National Biological Resources Database.

MBRC at KIOST hosts the Marine & Extreme Bioresources Collections <ref name="meg">http://www.megrc.re.kr/MEBiC</ref>.

KOBIS (the Korean Ocean Biogeographic Information System <ref name="kob">http://kobis-en.kordi.re.kr/</ref>) is a member of the international OBIS system and provides marine biodiversity information to the main databases.

== Private investment ==

With the strong support shown by the Korean government to biotechnology, the overall market for biotechnology-derived products, mainly human health and ‘bio-foods’, was estimated at US$6.5B in 2010 . A number of companies make more specific use of marine-origin materials, including Kittolife, with products based on high-purity, high-quality chito-oligosaccharides www.kittolife.co.kr; and amBio, which is investigating marine organisms and algae as probiotics and food or feed ingredients <ref name="amb">http://www.ambio.co.kr/eng/sub01/index.html</ref>. The US Company Unigen has a Korean subsidiary that uses extracts from marine organisms as ingredients in pharmaceuticals, functional foods, dietary supplements, cosmeceuticals, and animal health products <ref name="uni">http://www.unigenusa.com/</ref>.

Companies working on algae for carbon capture or energy production include SK Energy, which began investment in marine biofuels in 2008, Ecophyco Tech, Pegasus International.

SAIT (the Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology) is involved in one relevant research project, developing the use of red seaweeds as biofuels, with Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul National University and the University of Illinois USA. SAIT operates a Global Research Outreach Program and issues calls for novel ideas in 15 areas including Energy, awarding US$50,000-$100,000 per project <ref name="sai">http://www.sait.samsung.co.kr/saithome/Main.do?method=main&pageKind=01</ref>.

== References ==
<references/>

== Disclaimer==

{{Marinebiotechdisclaimer2}}

[[category:Marine Biotechnology]]

Marine Biotechnology in other South-East Asia countries

2013-03-08T16:02:01Z

Angelm: Created page with "Go back to: Home > Strategies, Policies and Programmes > Asia == Brunei Darusssalam == There are mariculture projects in Brunei, and ..."

Go back to: [[Portal:Marine Biotechnology|Home]] > [[Strategies, Policies and Programmes]] > [[Asia]]

== Brunei Darusssalam ==

There are mariculture projects in Brunei, and biodiversity/ecology research, but little or no evidence of marine biotechnology.

== Cambodia ==

No Biotechnology or Marine Biotechnology strategies are in evidence. There is a National Capacity Action Plan 2007-2016 responding to UN Conventions, and the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan and a Government Rectangular Strategy 2009-2013 (which mentions fisheries reforms and making better use of natural resources including biodiversity). These all focus on prevention of damage to biodiversity rather than sustainable development and use<ref name="cbd">http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/kh/kh-nr-04-en.pdf</ref>.

== Lao People’s Democratic Republic ==

The National Authority for Science and Technology NAST was established in 2007 and has a Biotechnology Center.

== Myanmar ==
Little information except that a number of Universities are involved in marine science and/or biotechnology, e.g. Mawlamyine University, MandalayTechnological University and the Technological University Dawei.

== The Philippines ==

DOST (the Department of Science and Technology) funds, and PCAARRD (the Philippine Council for Agriculture Aquatic Resources Research and Development) coordinate the National Aquatic Resources Research and Development System (NARRDS) and its R&D projects and programs. One of the NARRDS programmes is The Philippine PharmaSeas Drug Discovery Program. PharmaSeas is focused on bioactives from marine organisms, including anti-infectives from sponges and their symbionts and further exploration of pain-control using marine snail venoms <ref name="pia">http://www.pia.gov.ph/news/index.php?article=631332142905</ref>.

The first biotechnology establishment in the Philippines was the National Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology at the University of the Philippines at Los Baños (UPLB). Of the four national centres that are part of NARRDS, UP-Marine Science Institute (UPMSI) and UP in the Visayas (UPV) are involved in marine biotechnology R&D and UPLB is involved in industrial and agricultural biotechnology. UPMSI is the lead on the PharmaSeas programme and also works in ecoinformatics, culture optimisation and molecular characterisation to support marine bioresource development. Macroalgal research is carried out by several colleges and government centres, including UPMSI (which hosts the Seaweed Information Center in Quezon City); the Colleges of Fisheries at UPV and at Bicol University; the Marine Biological Laboratory at Silliman University; the University of San Carlos; the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Iloilo; and the Fisheries Resources Research Division, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources. The Philippines is a major producer of seaweeds and marine colloids.

== Singapore ==

A National Biotechnology Development Strategy was established in 2000. Singapore has invested heavily in biotechnology but this is entirely devoted to human genomics, human healthcare and advanced biomedicine. There has been some investigation of bioactives from marine organisms but marine biotechnology activity is not high. Research at NUS, the National University of Singapore <ref name="nus">http://www.nus.edu.sg/</ref>, includes marine biotechnology (in Microbiology, Systems Biology/Biotechnology Group) but NUS’s Marine Biology Laboratory <ref name="dbs">http://www.dbs.nus.edu.sg/lab/MBL/index.html</ref> does not seem to have links with NUS’s Biotech Cluster Group. Some private investment is noted, including investment into use of freshwater sponges to clean up wastewater contaminants, by the Singapore Delft Water Alliance SDWA <ref name="por">http://www.porifarma.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=18&Itemid=29</ref>, whose Dutch partner is Porifarma BV, founded 2008-9 but it is not clear what progress has been made so far. One company MerLion Pharmaceuticals works with extensive natural product collections, including some of marine origin.

== Sri Lanka ==

There is a National Committee on Biotechnology and a National Plan 2009-2015 but there is very little public investment in biotechnology, including marine biotechnology.

== References ==
<references/>

== Disclaimer==

{{Marinebiotechdisclaimer2}}

[[category:Marine Biotechnology]]

Marine Biotechnology in Taiwan

2013-03-08T15:58:13Z

Angelm: Created page with "Go back to: Home > Strategies, Policies and Programmes > Asia == National strategy for biotechnology == The National Promotion Plan f..."

Go back to: [[Portal:Marine Biotechnology|Home]] > [[Strategies, Policies and Programmes]] > [[Asia]]

== National strategy for biotechnology ==

The National Promotion Plan for the Biotechnology Industry was first published in 1995 and revised every 2 years since then. A ‘Diamond Action Plan for Taiwan Biotech Takeoff’ was established in 2009, building on the Act for Development of Biotech and New Pharmaceuticals Industry (2008). The main focus is on human health applications, including genomics, and on supporting the development of the most active biotech-focused venture capital and investment industry in Asia. The Biotech & Pharmaceutical Industries Program Office in the Ministry of Economic Affairs is responsible for supporting the Promotion Plan.

== National strategy for marine biotechnology ==

There is no specific marine biotechnology strategy. Elements of marine bioresource development are present in three aspects of the ‘Newly Emerging Biotech’ sub-sector, specialized biotech, agricultural biotech and environmental biotech.

== Centres of marine biotechnology research ==

Several universities are involved in marine biotechnology including:
National Cheng Kung University;

The Institute of Marine Biotechnology <ref name="eur">http://www.imbt.ndhu.edu.tw/files/11-1051-8244.php</ref> at National Dong Hwa University, working on industrial applications of marine bioresources using biotechnology, and marine biomedical developments, in collaboration with the Government institution NMMBA (the National Museum of Marine Biology and Aquarium <ref name="nmm">http://www.nmmba.gov.tw/english/ResearchA/College_of_Marine_Science)</ref>;

The National Sun Yat Sen University, which offers undergraduate and post-graduate courses in marine biotechnology <ref name="nsy">http://marine.nsysu.edu.tw/files/11-1023-4030.php</ref>;

The Institute of Marine Biology at the National Taiwan Ocean University, researching ecology, taxonomy and utility of marine organisms, including natural products chemistry, with activities in marine plankton, crustacean, phycology and marine fungi and viruses <ref name="imb">http://www.imb.ntou.edu.tw/introduction.htm</ref>.

== References ==
<references/>

== Disclaimer==

{{Marinebiotechdisclaimer2}}

[[category:Marine Biotechnology]]

Marine Biotechnology in Malaysia

2013-03-08T15:00:10Z

Angelm: Created page with "Go back to: Home > Strategies, Policies and Programmes > Asia == National strategy for biotechnology == Malaysia’s New Biotechnolog..."

Go back to: [[Portal:Marine Biotechnology|Home]] > [[Strategies, Policies and Programmes]] > [[Asia]]

== National strategy for biotechnology ==

Malaysia’s New Biotechnology Policy was announced in 2005, covering the period to 2020. The NBP includes agricultural and industrial biotechnology.

== National strategy for marine biotechnology ==

There is no obvious national strategy for marine biotechnology.

== Programmes ==

The Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010 allocated almost US$550M to biotechnology industry development, some of this funnelled through the Malaysia Biotech Corporation, part of MOSTI, the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation.

== Centres of marine biotechnology research ==

The School of Biological Sciences, University of Malaysia, Penang has departments of Aquatic Biology and Biotechnology <ref name="usm">http://bio.usm.my/index.php/programmes/postgraduate/biotechnology</ref>. There is also a Faculty of Biology at the National University of Malaysia, Selangor <ref name="mmy">http://www.ukm.my/bsbt/</ref>. Although the School of Biosciences and Biotechnology at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia <ref name="ukm">http://www.ukm.my/</ref> has study and research programmes in molecular biosciences and biotechnology, there is no mention of marine science.
The School of Engineering and IT <ref name="skt">http://sktm.ums.edu.my/sktmv2/Default.asp</ref> at the University Malaysia Sabah has some work on engineering of algal biofuels and there is an Institute of Biotechnology <ref name="ums">http://www.ums.edu.my/ipb/index.html</ref>.

== Infrastructures ==

There is no evidence of any directed towards marine biotechnology.

== Private investment ==

The biotechnology industry overall is projected to contribute c. US$75B to Malaysia’s economy by 2020. BiotechCorp expects to establish over 100 new companies, many through a programme called BioNexus, with about 30% of its investments going into agricultural companies, th0ough none appear to have a marine focus. Algaetech International is based in Kuala Lumpur, selling microalgal products for nutrition and health supplements, and is also developing algal systems for biofuels, waste water management and CO2 sequestration <ref name="com">http://algaetech.com.my/</ref>. Current demonstration projects include a CO2-trapping system installed at a power plant in Indonesia, using photobioreactors for algal cultivation; current development projects focus on biofuels and high-value products such as astaxanthins.

== References ==
<references/>

== Disclaimer==

{{Marinebiotechdisclaimer2}}

[[category:Marine Biotechnology]]

Marine Biotechnology in Vietnam

2013-03-08T14:52:10Z

Angelm: Created page with "Go back to: Home > Strategies, Policies and Programmes > Asia == National strategy for biotechnology == A Development Programme in Bi..."

Go back to: [[Portal:Marine Biotechnology|Home]] > [[Strategies, Policies and Programmes]] > [[Asia]]

== National strategy for biotechnology ==

A Development Programme in Biotechnology was established in 1994 for the period 1995-2010 managed by MOSTE, the Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment. A National Commission on Biotechnology was established in 1997.

== National strategy for marine biotechnology ==

There is no national strategy for marine biotechnology. However, VAST, the Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, issued a President’s Letter in August 2012 that foresees increased efforts in ecology and marine biotechnology for sustainable use of Vietnam’s marine biodiversity, noted as one of the 16 top ‘hot spots’ in the world <ref name="vas">http://www.vast.ac.vn/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1188:investigating-and-accessing-vietnams-marine-biological-resources&catid=28:national-science-and-technogory-news&Itemid=34</ref>. There is a State Biofuel Development Program of 2007, which provides a framework for use of marine biomass for bioenergy.

== Centres of marine biotechnology research ==

VAST <ref name="ast">http://www.vast.ac.vn/index.php</ref>, has several institutes relevant for marine biotechnology, including
Ecology and Biological Resources , Natural Products Chemistry , Marine Environment and Resources , Biotechnology and NITRA, the Nhatrang Institute of Technology Research and Application . NITRA works on genetic resources and cultivation improvement for seaweeds, high-value enzymes from marine organisms, biotechnology for aquaculture development and new bioactives.
The Institute of Biotechnology at the National Centre of Natural Science and Technology researches microorganisms and basic biotechnology.

Several Universities in Vietnam are involved in marine biotechnology:

The Institute of Microbiology and Biotechnology at VNU, Vietnam National University <ref name="vnu">http://www.vnu.vn/en/contents/index.php?ID=939</ref> hosts the Vietnam Type Culture Collection VTCC and works on biodiversity, taxonomy, enzyme and protein technology, molecular genetics, microbiology, microalgae, fungi, fermentation and downstream processing technology. IMB uses genomics to identify potential novel bioactives with applications in medicine, agriculture, and food processing;

The Department of Aquatic Resources Management carries out some biotechnology work concerned with discharge reduction for fish and seafood production; molecular biotechnology is included in the degree course <ref name="wix">http://www.wix.com/iuaquatic/ardweb</ref>;

The Department of Biotechnology at Ho Chi Minh International University works on marine bioactives and biofuels, advanced aquaculture and environmental remediation <ref name="csc">http://csc.hcmiu.edu.vn/biotechnology/index.php/deparment-of-biotechnology/research</ref>;

Ho Chi Minh City Medicine and Pharmacy University was a partner in the EU-funded project COLORSPORE, which aimed to find new natural carotenoids from, among other organisms, marine Bacillus species;

Ho Chi Minh City Biotechnology Center has developed PCR-based tests for shrimp diseases.

Seaweeds are farmed in Vietnam for food and industrial purposes, including Kappaphycus alvarezii, Sargassum and Gracilaria tenuistipitata, and these are being investigated for biofuels use.

== Infrastructures ==

Work on the Ho Chi Minh City Biotechnology Park began in 2010 with an investment of US$100M, incorporating the HCMC Biotechnology Center. 6 of the 12 planned laboratories will be used for aquaculture, seafood and environmental biotechnology.

== References ==
<references/>

== Disclaimer==

{{Marinebiotechdisclaimer2}}

[[category:Marine Biotechnology]]

Marine Biotechnology in Indonesia

2013-03-08T14:47:33Z

Angelm: Created page with "Go back to: Home > Strategies, Policies and Programmes > Asia More than 75% of Indonesia is coastal and marine; it has the second-long..."

Go back to: [[Portal:Marine Biotechnology|Home]] > [[Strategies, Policies and Programmes]] > [[Asia]]

More than 75% of Indonesia is coastal and marine; it has the second-longest coastline after Canada. As an area of great biodiversity, it has great promise for marine biodiscovery. A recent paper describes numerous new molecules found in Indonesian marine invertebrates and microbes . The Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries is responsible for marine biotechnology.

== National strategy for biotechnology ==

A national science and technology policy was established in 1990, with biotechnology as one of the priorities. An Indonesian Biotechnology Consortium has been founded, bringing over 30 institutes together, which formulated a national biotechnology strategy programme in 2004.

Some activities were proposed after 2000, including a ‘Bio-Island’ in Rempang, intended to be a special economic zone for research and commercialisation of biotechnology (including marine biotechnology) and a Bio-park in Serpong West Java as a centre for biodiversity exploration, biodiscovery, culture collections and gene banks. These were to be government-supported, through the Ministry of Science and Technology.

== National strategy for marine biotechnology ==

There is no obvious national strategy for marine biotechnology.

== Centres of marine biotechnology research ==

A number of Universities have groups involved in marine biodiscovery and biotechnology, including those of Diponegoro, Gadjahmada, Sam Ratulangi, and Bogor Agricultural Institute, the Marine Fisheries Agency’s Ekowati Chasanah Research Centre for Marine and Fisheries Product Processing and Biotechnology. The University of Diponegoro’s Center for Tropical and Coastal Studies <ref name="und">http://www.undip.ac.id/</ref> is a partner in the EU-funded project MARINE FUNGI, which is aiming to isolate new anticancer drugs from marine fungi.

== Infrastructures ==

The Department of Marine Affairs and Fisheries established a scientific forum for Indonesian Marine Biopharmaceuticals in 2005, as a network of researchers, government and industry.

== References ==
<references/>

== Disclaimer==

{{Marinebiotechdisclaimer2}}

[[category:Marine Biotechnology]]

Marine Biotechnology in Indian Ocean islands

2013-03-08T14:44:55Z

Angelm: Created page with "Go back to: Home > Strategies, Policies and Programmes > Asia == Madagascar == The National Oceanographic Data Centre at the Universi..."

Go back to: [[Portal:Marine Biotechnology|Home]] > [[Strategies, Policies and Programmes]] > [[Asia]]

== Madagascar ==

The National Oceanographic Data Centre at the University of Toliara is involved in the protection of coastal reefs and marine biodiversity assessment in south-western Madagascar and bio-ecological surveys to facilitate the development of a sustainable marine park in the Masaola area in the north-east. The Data Centre records include almost 6,500 records of corals, diatoms, dinoflagellates, invertebrates and fish. The University of Antananarivo is working on photobioreactor culture of microalgae for bioremediation, biomolecules and Bioenergy; organisms mentioned include Chlorella, Spirulina, Porphyridium and other species <ref name="ant">http://www.univ-antananarivo.mg/</ref>.

Madagascar is the Earth’s 4th largest island and its marine resources seem to be particularly rich in diversity and attract collaborative international projects, such as The Sea Around Us (University of British Columbia), examining use and abuse of fish resources; Biodiversity conservation and drug discovery in Madagascar (University of Maryland supported by NIH International Cooperative Biodiversity Group $4.5M 2008-2013); and collection of algae and cyanobacteria by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine.

== Mauritius ==

In 2003, the Ministry of Agriculture, Food Technology and Natural Resources proposed the
Mauritius Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (MABI), with a budget of Rs. 360M, expected to start operating in 2008. Whether this includes marine biotechnology is not known.

== References ==
<references/>

== Disclaimer==

{{Marinebiotechdisclaimer2}}

[[category:Marine Biotechnology]]

Marine Biotechnology in New Zealand

2013-03-08T14:38:47Z

Angelm: Created page with "Go back to: Home > Strategies, Policies and Programmes > Australia Pacific == National strategy for biotechnology == The New Zealand ..."

Go back to: [[Portal:Marine Biotechnology|Home]] > [[Strategies, Policies and Programmes]] > [[Australia Pacific]]

== National strategy for biotechnology ==

The New Zealand Biotechnology Strategy was published in May 2003. In the 2000s, New Zealand put about 25% of its national R&D budget into biotechnology, almost NZ$200M pa. New Zealand Trade and Enterprise reported in 2006 that it spent about NZ$11.5M on facilitating biotechnology development and industrial activity. NZTE’s 10-year vision is to make New Zealand a world leader in niche biotechnology applications. It includes marine biotechnology within an environment and industry sub-sector of biotechnology.

== National strategy for marine biotechnology ==

There is no specific national strategy but, in 2007, MoRST (The Ministry of Research, Science and Technology produced a roadmap for biotechnology research, which included marine biotechnology as a strategic component <ref name="msi">http://www.msi.govt.nz/assets/BiotechnologyRoadmap.pdf</ref>. Molecular aquaculture and marine bioactives were identified as the two major areas of strength in research. The roadmap noted that national needs for biosecurity, understanding of biodiversity, generation of new products including food, increased productivity and environmentally-sustainable industrial development all acted as triggers for government investment in or co-funding of marine bioresource research and development. It was recognised that there was a need to build research capacity and increase industry’s ability to draw and apply research from this. Public investment in marine biotechnology, at c. $NZ4.5M in the 2004-2005 funding year, was about 2% of total biotechnology funding, 57% on use of genetics and biotechnology in aquaculture and 43% on bioactive extraction, characterisation and exploitation. Increased investment should go into basic and targeted research that would underpin future development, and helping links between industry and research.

The industry-led New Zealand Aquaculture Strategy was published in 2006, with a commitment to adoption of innovation and an economic drive towards a market target of over NZ$ 1B by 2025 <ref name="sea">http://www.seafoodnewzealand.org.nz/fileadmin/documents/Publications/Aquaculture_Strategy.pdf</ref>. The Five-Year Action Plan for the Aquaculture Industry was published by the government in 2012 <ref name="fis">http://www.fish.govt.nz/en-nz/Aquaculture/Aquaculture+strategy/default.htm</ref>. Although neither document refers to biotechnology, using ‘innovation’ or ‘industry-led innovation’ instead, funding rounds since adoption of the strategy have included aquaculture biotechnology.

== Programmes ==

It is not clear whether there are any coordinated marine biotechnology programmes in place.

== Centres of marine biotechnology research ==

NIWA (the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research <ref name="niw">http://www.niwa.co.nz/about-niwa/our-company</ref>) works in marine biodiversity and aquaculture, and bio-oil from algae, but has reduced its activities in marine biotechnology in recent years. The Australia New Zealand Biotechnology Partnership Fund has supported one project on a small-scale, to facilitate links in the area of natural bioactives, including marine-origin, managed by NIWA <ref name="nzt">http://www.nzte.govt.nz/find-funding-assistance/australia-new-zealand-biotechnology-partnership-fund/pages/australia-new-zealand-biotechnology-partnership-fund.aspx</ref>. The institute has collaborated in the past with a New Zealand based sea food company Ngai Tahu Seafood, to explore the cosmetics market by isolating and identifying bioactives from sea food by-products and by-catch species, and with MalCorp Biodiscoveries on anti-inflammatory compounds for pharmaceuticals, but it isn’t clear if these are current activities <ref name="iwa">https://www.niwa.co.nz/fisheries/fau/no08-2003/natural-products-and-bioactives-research-at-niwa</ref>.

The Cawthron Institute has an aquatic biotechnology department involved in algal technologies, environmental monitoring and seafood safety <ref name="caw">http://www.cawthron.org.nz/aquatic-biotechnologies/overview.html</ref>. The Institute has significant experience with algal biology and a commercial algal production system for its shellfish hatchery, and is also involved in developing and commercially-exploiting its discoveries. In the microalgal field, the Cawthron has recently installed a 17-vessel automated photobioreactor system, which uses an innovative growth programme with multivariant analysis and control, to simulate as near-industrial conditions as possible and optimise algal performance.

The University of Waikato collaborates with the USA National Cancer Institute on marine bioactives and is a partner in an EU-funded marine bioactives project PharmaSea. Current activities include agrochemical applications of marine bioactives and biotechnology for aquaculture. Relevant departments include the Environmental Research Institute <ref name="wai">http://www.waikato.ac.nz/eri/about</ref>, Biological Sciences <ref name="sci">http://sci.waikato.ac.nz/about-us/biological-sciences/our-research</ref> and the Coastal Marine Group <ref name="ket">http://sci.waikato.ac.nz/research/centres-and-units/cmg/vision</ref>.

== Infrastructures ==

The University of Canterbury’s national marine bioresource collection was destroyed in the Christchurch earthquakes of 2011; the University of Waikato is maintaining this as a catalogue collection of recorded location information for the collection whilst a programme of re-sampling is to take place.

The Cawthron Institute manages what is effectively the national collection of micro-algae and cyanobacteria <ref name="thr">http://www.cawthron.org.nz/aquatic-biotechnologies/micro-algae-culture-collection.html</ref>. This is supported by state-of-the-art cryopreservation technology and contains many unique species, including those from unique environments around New Zealand, the Pacific and Antarctica.

== References ==
<references/>

== Disclaimer==

{{Marinebiotechdisclaimer2}}

Marine Biotechnology in Mexico

2013-03-08T14:30:51Z

Angelm: Created page with "Go back to: Home > Strategies, Policies and Programmes > America == National strategy for biotechnology == There is no specific biote..."

Go back to: [[Portal:Marine Biotechnology|Home]] > [[Strategies, Policies and Programmes]] > [[America]]

== National strategy for biotechnology ==

There is no specific biotechnology strategy.
Mexico has a national programme, PECYT, the Special Programme for Science and Technology 2001-2006 and PECiTI, the Special Programme for Science, Technology and Innovation 2008-2012 <ref name="ino">http://ebookbrowse.com/gdoc.php?id=22949787&url=1216324f5c00590612ec96aca8c54aa3</ref>), and a National Development Plan 2007-2012. PECiTI puts biotechnology at the top of a list of technology priorities for use in national development but the only theme in which biotechnology is a focus is that of biosecurity and biotechnology.

== National strategy for marine biotechnology ==

There is no national strategy for marine biotechnology.

== Programmes ==

Mexico’s CONACYT (National Council of Science and Technology) is responsible for a number of publicly-funded research centres throughout the country and for the scope of National Programmes and Development Plans.

== Centres of marine biotechnology research ==

CICESE (the Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada <ref name="cic">http://www.cicese.edu.mx/int/index.php?mod=acd&op=intro</ref>) is a state-funded institute. CICESE’s Department of Marine Biotechnology researches ecology, biochemistry and molecular genetics of marine biodiversity, with applications in marine natural products, biotechnology in aquaculture, bioremediation, bioprocess engineering, biomass biorefinery and functional nutrition <ref name="ese">http://www.cicese.edu.mx/int/index.php?mod=inv&op=ac&dep=6802</ref>.

The National Autonomous University of Mexico has several marine biotechnology activities, including the Dept of Ecology and Aquatic Biodiversity <ref name="icm">http://www.icmyl.unam.mx/?q=node/17</ref>), the Mazatlán Research Dept on the Pacific Coast <ref name="myl">http://www.icmyl.unam.mx/?q=node/19</ref>) the Reef Systems Unit at Puerto Morelos <ref name="arr">http://www.icmyl.unam.mx/arrecifes/rsu.html</ref>) and the Unit of Oceanic and Coastal Processes, which together form ICMYL, the Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología (Institute of Marine Science and Limnology <ref name="una">http://www.icmyl.unam.mx/?q=node/6</ref>).

The Biological Oceanography group at the Oceanology Institute, Autonomous University of Baja California, is active in molecular aquaculture for shellfish and crustacea and advanced cultivation methods for seaweeds <ref name="iio">http://iio.ens.uabc.mx/servicios/servicioarea.php?area=1</ref>.

Universidad del Mar (UMAR) maintains a culture collection in the Institute of Resources <ref name="mar">http://www.umar.mx/investigacion.html#ir</ref>. Its Institutes and groups in Genetics, Biotechnology, Marine Biology, Environmental Biotechnology and others based at Puerto Ángel have relevant marine biotechnology activities.

The Unidad Mérida of CINVESTAV (Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados <ref name="mda">http://www.mda.cinvestav.mx/</ref>) has an Aquaculture, Fisheries and Biotechnology programme within the Ocean Resources department. A current project is assessment of bioactive molecules in seaweed of the Yucatán coast, funded by CONACYT and SEP, the Education Secretariat.

== References ==
<references/>

== Disclaimer==

{{Marinebiotechdisclaimer2}}

[[category:Marine Biotechnology]]

Marine Biotechnology in Costa Rica

2013-03-08T14:24:24Z

Angelm: Created page with "Go back to: Home > Strategies, Policies and Programmes > America Costa Rica’s Biodiversity Law was enacted in 1988, leading to the s..."

Go back to: [[Portal:Marine Biotechnology|Home]] > [[Strategies, Policies and Programmes]] > [[America]]

Costa Rica’s Biodiversity Law was enacted in 1988, leading to the setting-up of CONAGEBIO (the National Commission for Biodiversity Management), bringing together government departments and interest bodies including trade associations. The law also set up access and benefit-sharing (ABS) requirements, including up-front payments of up to 10% from research budgets, when possible, to support conservation, and up to 50% share of royalties.

The Costa Rican Government launched a national ‘Políticas Azules’, Blue Agenda, in November 2012, under the leadership of a newly-created post of Deputy Minister of Water and Seas. The new Minister, Alfio Piva, emphasized the need for a national policy on sustainable development for coastal marine areas, increased surveillance of marine resource extraction and termination of pollution of coasts and gulfs <ref name="laf">http://lafraguacr.org/2012/11/05/gobierno-lanzo-hoy-politicas-azules-y-nuevo-viceministerio-de-agua-y-mares/</ref>.

Costa Rica’s National Biodiversity Institute INBio (<ref name="inb">http://www.inbio.ac.cr/en/</ref>) was founded in 1989, one year after the Biodiversity Law was enacted. It is a non-government private organisation. Its Bioprospecting Programme was established in 1991, and marine biodiversity exploration began in 1995. INBio has worked under the Biodiversity Law’s ABS scheme since its foundation and has also been involved in capacity-building and technology transfer activities through collaborations with commercial and academic partners.

Collaborations on marine biodiversity include evaluation of the potential applications of marine sponge bioactives in collaboration with INVEMAR (Colombia) and the Henry Ford Hospital (USA), since 2003; screening of natural products from marine macro- and microorganisms in an ICBG (International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups) project with Harvard Medical School and University of Michigan, targeting CNS, antiparasite and anticancer activities; and novel antimicrobials from unexplored sources, such as crustacean and insect gut flora, with CNB (Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Spain). INBio has also worked with the US company Verenium on unculturable microorganisms for the development of industrial enzymes, leading to commercialisation of a new green fluorescent marine-based protein, and is a partner in an FP7 EU-funded project, PharmaSea. The Ministry of Foreign Trade, the Costa Rican Investment Promotion Agency CINDE and the Spanish company PharmaMar announced in October 2012 a funded cooperation agreement between PharmaMar and INBio, exploring Costa Rican marine organisms for new anti-cancer agents <ref name="cin">http://www.cinde.org/en/news/18-news/306-important-biotechnology-research-project-to-fight-cancer-taking-place-in-costa-rica</ref>.

National universities are also involved in marine biodiversity and pollution studies, mainly CIMAR (Centro de Investigación en Ciencias del Mar y Limnología <ref name="cim">http://www.cimar.ucr.ac.cr/</ref>) at the University of Costa Rica UCR and the National University (UNA). In 2011, UCR started activities in microbial ecology, through a postgraduate course funded by the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation for Development (AECID) <ref name="ucr">http://www.ucr.ac.cr/noticias/2011/07/20/ucr-abre-nueva-linea-de-investigacion-marina/imprimir.html</ref>.

== References ==
<references/>

== Disclaimer==

{{Marinebiotechdisclaimer2}}

[[category:Marine Biotechnology]]

European policy on eutrophication: introduction

2013-03-08T09:35:42Z

Daphnisd: /* References */

One of the major pollution problems facing European waters is eutrophication.
European policy has consistently identified eutrophication as a priority issue for water management. Substantial progress has been made in combating eutrophication but there remains several areas where co-ordination is necessary to achieve a harmonised result for different policy areas. Thus an activity was initiated under the Common Implementation Strategy of the Water Framework Directive and the European Marine Strategy to provide guidance on:

* the harmonisation of assessment methodologies and criteria for the '''trophic status''' assessment in rivers, lakes, transitional, coastal and marine waters
* the co-ordination of '''monitoring and reporting'''
* the harmonisation of models for '''assessing or predicting anthropogenic or natural nutrient loading''' into inland and marine waters based on nutrient sources information or nutrient sources scenarios
* the systematic '''identification of sources'''
* harmonisation of dose-respons models '''linking nutrient loading to ecological impact''' in different water body types and categories

== Overview of policy instruments ==

A number of EC Directives require member states to monitor parameters relevant to eutrophication, however only the Urban Wastewater Treatment (UWWT) Directive and the Nitrates Directive have an '''explicit''' requirement to assess eutrophication. The [[Water Framework Directive]] (WFD) supports both these Directives in its provisions for protected areas, and has an '''implicit''' requirement to assess eutrophication when classifying the ecological status of surface water bodies. Unlike the UWWT Directive and the Nitrates Directive, the WFD stipulates a specific framework for assessing water quality. Eutrophication assessment criteria and methods have also been developed by several European conventions, including OSPAR and HELCOM. 

<div style="padding:0.6em 0em 0em 3em">
* '''Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive''' 
:In order to identify water bodies that are eutrophic (or may become eutrophic in the near future if protective action is not taken) every 4 years the existing sensitive areas have to be reviewed and new ones have to be designated.

* '''Nitrates Directive''' 
:Waters should be monitored for nitrates, in order to identify waters affected by pollution and waters, which could be affected by pollution if action is not taken, and to designate their catchment area as nitrate vulnerable zone. This monitoring program should be repeated at least every four years. A review of the eutrophic state of surface waters, estuaries and coastal waters should be made every four years.

* '''Waterframework Directive''' 
:The requirements to assess eutrophication are included in the classification of [[Waterframework Directive and Eutrophication|Ecological Quality Status]] where nutrient enrichment affects biological and physico-chemical quality elements. The WDF requires the assessment of physicochemical quality elements (every 3 months), phytoplankton (every 6 months), aquatic flora (every 3 years), macroinvertebrates (every 3 years) and fish (every 3 years).

* '''Marine Strategy Framework Directive''' 
:The Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) requirements to assess eutrophication in marine and coastal waters are based on 'good' environmental status concept. Hence the MSFD does not require additional monitoring in coastal waters as regards assessment of eutrophication, as these waters were already covered by the WFD. The MSFD does require a marine monitoring program to be established by 2014.

* '''Ospar Convention''' 
:The Ospar eutrophication strategy explicitly lists requirements for assessing the eutrophication status in OSPAR maritime waters. Ospar requires the monitoring of selected parameters for nutrient enrichment, direct effects, indirect effects and other possible effects.

* '''Helsinky convention''' 
:The convention explicitly states that in the Baltic Sea nutrient inputs, emissions, discharges and losses as well as nutrient concentrations and their effects need to be assessed and quantified. 
</div>

== References ==

[http://www.google.be/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&ved=0CEAQFjAC&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.inag.pt%2Finag2004%2Fport%2Fdivulga%2FDocumentos_chave%2Fcomunit%2FCIS_DQA_guias%2F23_%2520Eutrophication.pdf&ei=gMM1UYmBNsW6O4fYgLgN&usg=AFQjCNHtHo9ftu7sskRu_thnkI_qDS8RZQ&bvm=bv.43148975,d.d2k European Communities 2009. WFD CIS Guidance Document No. 23. Guidance Document on Eutrophication assessment in the context of European water Policies ]

{{author
|AuthorID=19826
|AuthorFullName= Daphnis De Pooter
|AuthorName=Daphnisd}}

Marine Biotechnology North America summary

2013-03-07T14:38:52Z

Angelm: Created page with "Go back to: Home > Strategies, Policies and Programmes > International summaries == Overa..."

Marine Biotechnology Middle East summary

2013-03-07T14:36:40Z

Angelm: Created page with "Go back to: Home > Strategies, Policies and Programmes > International summaries == Overa..."

Go back to: [[Portal:Marine Biotechnology|Home]] > [[Strategies, Policies and Programmes]] > [[Marine Biotechnology international summaries|International summaries]]

== Overarching science strategies, plans and policies ==

There appear to be no national biotechnology or marine biotechnology strategies, policies or plans. Israel had an economic development Bio-Plan 2000-2010.

== Research funding schemes and programmes ==

Marine biotechnology seems to be fragmented and buried inside national research plans and programmes.

== Research priorities ==

It is difficult to see what research topics might predominate. Israel is involved in sponge biotechnology, marine bioactives and marine biofuels. Turkey has activities in bioactives and in algal culture for bioenergy and biorefineries. Individual institutions are involved in a number of EU-funded consortia in marine biotechnology. Oman hosts the UNESCO chair in Seafood Biotechnology, at Sultan Qaboos University. There are new opportunities for algal biotechnology and molecular aquaculture in the region, such as Saudi Arabia’s SABA algal biofinery project.

== Infrastructures and coordination and support capacities/initiatives ==

CIESM and INOC represent the most important trans-regional activities; CIESM brings eastern Mediterranean countries together with North African and southern European countries; INOC brings the Middle East into contact with other Muslim nations spread across the world.

== National Profiles ==

'''Iran'''

Department of Marine Biology, University of Marine Science and Technology , Khorramshahr-IRAN
Center for Biotechnology Research (PGBRC), Queshm Island, Iran.

'''Israel'''

''National strategy for biotechnology''

Israel adopted a biotechnology economic exploitation strategy Bio-Plan 2000-2010, under the auspices of the Ministry of Industry & Trade. There is no specific biotechnology research strategy, but there are strategic research themes and a National Biotechnology Steering Committee. The Ministry of Science and Technology supports infrastructure, enabling scientific research and research with economic potential, likely to produce new generation products for industrial, agricultural, medical and environmental sectors. Establishment of an infrastructure for biotechnology is one of its stated goals. There is also a joint strategic task force on biotechnology with USA, as part of the US-Israel Science and Technology Commission USISTC, established in 1993.

''National strategy for marine biotechnology''

None known.

''Programmes''

Israel is a member of the European Research Area <ref name="era">http://ec.europa.eu/research/era/index_en.htm</ref> and qualifies for European funding.

''Centres of marine biotechnology research''

* The National Center for Mariculture at Eilat works in fish biotechnology and seaweed farming <ref name="oce">http://www.ocean.org.il/Eng/ResearchInstitutesAndInfrastructure/NationalCenterToSeaAgriculture.asp</ref>
* Ben-Gurion University, the Negev, has worked on microalgal cultivation and production of astaxanthin and was also a member in the EU-funded project GIAVAP with companies Rosetta Genomics and Alga Technologies;
* The Hebrew University of Jerusalem hosts the Ruppin Academic Center School of Marine Sciences <ref name="rup">http://www.ruppin.ac.il/pages/1821.aspx</ref>;
* The IOLR (Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research Institute <ref name="org">http://www.ocean.org.il/Eng/CompanyProfile/SeaAgriculture.asp</ref>) is a non-profit governmental corporation. One of its three research themes is Mariculture and Marine Biotechnology, involving the development and transfer of know-how for the local mariculture industry and associated biotech industries. IOLR’s NCM, National Center for Mariculture, at Eilat, is involved in cultivation systems for marine organisms, genetic improvement of fish, prevention of maricultural diseases, new products and bioactives from marine sources and technology/knowledge transfer. It has generated two biotechnology startups in are areas of feeds for young fish and products to enhance fish reproduction;
* The Kinneret Limnological Laboratory works on some microbial aspects of the Sea of Galilee, including toxin production in cyanobacteria <ref name="gil">http://www.ocean.org.il/Eng/ResearchInstitutesAndInfrastructure/LaboratoryResearchKineret.asp</ref>;
* The NIO (National Institute of Oceanography, based at Haifa, hosts five research groups: Marine Chemistry, Marine Biology, Marine Biotechnology, Physical Oceanography and Marine Geology & Coastal Processes, active in the eastern Mediterranean, the Gulf of Aqaba and the Dead Sea. Research targets include innovative technologies for marine organism-derived food and biochemicals, medical uses of microalgal bioactives and advanced aquaculture and fish breeding;
* Technion (Israel Institute of Technology)
* Tel Aviv University Center for Renewable Energy <ref name="tau">http://english.tau.ac.il/renewable_energy</ref> is working with the NIO on seaweed co-culture in marine fish and shellfish aquaculture, with a view to pollution remediation and harvesting for biorefinery fractionation.
* The Weizmann Institute has activities in biology, biochemistry, chemistry and marine biotechnology and is a partner in the EU-funded project SUNBIOPATH (increasing algal sunlight-to-biomass conversion) <ref name="wei">http://www.weizmann.ac.il</ref>.

''Infrastructures''

The Society of Israeli Aquaculture and Marine Biotechnology (SIAMB <ref name="sia">http://www.siamb.org.il/</ref>) promotes research in aquaculture and marine biotechnology and publishes the Israeli Journal of Aquaculture.

'''Jordan'''

The Marine Science Station (University of Jordan-Yarmouk University) is a partner in the EU-funded project ULIXES (using Mediterranean biodiversity for environmental remediation).

'''Lebanon'''

The American University of Beirut is a partner in the EU-funded project MAREX (marine bioactives).

'''Oman'''

The Center of Excellence in Marine Biotechnology Sultan Qaboos University hosts the UNESCO chair in Seafood Biotechnology, with projects in value-added marine-origin products and detection and management of heavy-metal contamination of shellfish <ref name="squ">http://www.squ.edu.om/tabid/4393/language/en-US/Default.aspx</ref>.
Further information is needed.

'''Saudi Arabia'''

The King Abdulaziz City for Science & Technology KACST is Saudi Arabia’s science agency and network of state R&D laboratories. It is involved in policy-advising and in enacting R&D support strategies, as well as conducting basic and applied research. Biotechnology and nanotechnology are two of the 11 R&D areas. The Science and Technology National Policy aims to develop Saudi Arabia’s science base and R&D application and innovation in accord with national and religious requirements, and spans the period 2005-2025.

SABA, the Saudi Arabia Biorefinery from Algae project, has been started with funding from KACST, based on a previous small-scale applied R&D project. The first phase is the isolation and investigation of Saudi coastal microalgae to select those with are hyper-producers of algal lipids. The project is a collaboration between King Saud University, KSU’s King Abdulah Institute for Nanotechnology and two Portuguese institutions, CCMAR (Marine Sciences Centre, University of the Algarve, Faro) and IBB (Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Lisbon) <ref name="men">http://www.ecomena.org/saba-project/</ref>.

King Saud University has several algal-oriented activities, including investigation of algal bioactives.

'''United Arab Emirates'''

Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah, and Umm al-Quwain.

== References ==
<references/>

== Disclaimer ==

{{Marinebiotechdisclaimer3}}

[[category:Marine Biotechnology]]

Marine Biotechnology Central and South America summary

2013-03-07T14:22:58Z

Angelm: Created page with "Go back to: Home > Strategies, Policies and Programmes > International summaries == Overa..."

Marine Biotechnology Australia-Pacific summary

2013-03-07T14:20:53Z

Angelm: Created page with "Go back to: Home > Strategies, Policies and Programmes > International summaries == Overa..."

Go back to: [[Portal:Marine Biotechnology|Home]] > [[Strategies, Policies and Programmes]] > [[Marine Biotechnology international summaries|International summaries]]

== Overarching science strategies, plans and policies ==

Both Australia and New Zealand have biotechnology strategies but neither has a specific marine biotechnology strategy. In New Zealand, the Biotechnology strategy includes marine biotechnology within environment/industry, and MoRST (Ministry of Research Science and Technology) produced a roadmap for biotechnology research in 2007, which included marine biotechnology as a specific component.

In Australia, enhancement of access to marine resources and marine science are mentioned in the National Biotechnology Strategy (2000-2008) and its successor ‘Powering Ideas – An innovation agenda for the 21st century’, but marine biotechnology is not explicitly included. Australian States including Queensland and Tasmania do however include marine biotechnology as part of their research and economic development strategies. Marine Innovation South Australia includes and Aquaculture, Biotechnology and Biodiscovery Science group. Of the Pacific Islands, Guam and Fiji seem the most active in marine biotechnology. There are no obvious national strategies, but Fiji was an early mover in biodiversity (Access and Benefit-Sharing) policy development.

== Research funding schemes and programmes ==

Australia’s ‘Super Science Initiative’ plans to put A$1.1B into innovation science 2009-2013, approximately 45% into biotechnology, including marine biology in one of the ‘Future Industries’ themes. Australia already supports a world-class basic and applied research institute, AIMS (Australian Institute of Marine Sciences). Australia has also established the Industrial Transformation Research Program in 2011, with $236M funding, though it isn’t yet clear how much of this might be applied to marine biotechnology.

== Research priorities ==

The New Zealand Ministry of Research, Science & Technology’s roadmap for biotechnology research recognises molecular aquaculture and marine bioactives as two of New Zealand’s research strengths.

== Infrastructures and coordination and support capacities/initiatives ==

The Australian Cooperative Research Centres (CRCs) provide translational services for industry and several of these have taken part in marine biotechnology-orientated work, in seafood genetics, Antarctic microbiology and bioremediation.

== Disclaimer ==

{{Marinebiotechdisclaimer3}}

[[category:Marine Biotechnology]]